FUNGI

• In the sixth kingdom of classification, FUNGI are on their own kingdom

• They differ from other organisms in structure, method of reproduction and
nutrition
• They are eukaryotic, non-photosynthetic, multicellular
heterotrophs
• They are mostly microscopic molds or yeasts eg tangled mass
of filaments of cells that grow on bread, garri, orange…..
• Yeasts are unicellular organisms whose colonies resemble
those of bacteria
• Yeast are used in baking bread
• Filaments of fungi are called HYPHAE

• Cell walls of hyphae contain CHITIN, a complex polysaccharides

not found in bacteria, protists and other microbes but found in
insects
• Cell walls of fungi have chitin while those of plants have cellulose

• Fungi range in size from microscopic yeast to the largest organism in

the world – Armillaria (a fungus), lives underground and occupy a
space up to 8 hectares (861,000 ft2)

• Other organisms ingest their nutrients before digesting it but Fungi

secrets enzymes on their nutrients and then absorb the digested
nutrients through their cell wall
• Fungi also store energy in the form of glycogen – same for other
animals

• Most fungi are saprophytic feeding on dead organic matter hence are
important recyclers of material in nature
 STRUCTURE OF FUNGI
• They have mass of hyphae visible to the ordinary eye – MYCELIUM as
seen on bread and garri
• In some cross-sections of cells (SEPTA) divide the hyphae and are
called SEPTATE HYPHAE
• Hyphae of species without septa are called COENOCYTIC
• Hyphae grows at the tip and mycelial size increases

• Some fungi change their form in response to the environment

Histoplasma capsulatum grows as mycelium on the ground and
unicellularly in humans (higher temp) where it cause severe disease
that resemble TB. This phenomenon of change is called DIMORPHISM
Fig.1: Structure of Fungi
REPRODUCTION
•Most fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually
•Asexual reproduction involve production of thousands of
genetically identical spores on modified cells of the hyphae.
•Spores land on favourable areas and grow to produce new
hyphae and mycelia

Different Fungi Reproduce in Different ways asexually

•Sporangiophores carry sporangium which contain
sporangiospores eg as seen in Rhizopus the black mycelial
fungus commonly found on bread
• Yeast reproduce by budding where part of the yeast cell pinches off
to produce an offspring
Fig. 2: Asexual Reproduction (Budding in
Fig. 3:Asexual Reproduction – spores in
Fig. 4: Asexual Reproduction. production of conidia
Table 3: Three phyla of fungi
Phyla and Structure Asexual Sexual Examples
Number of Reproduction Reproduction
species (where
identified)
Zygomycota Coenocytic Spores from Conjugation Mucor,
600 species hyphae sporangia results in Rhizopus,
zygospores Penicillium
species
Basidiomycota Septate hyphae Rare Basidia Puccinia ,
25 000 species produce Ustilago
basidiospores (Mushrooms)
Ascomycota Septate or Conidia, Asci produce Bread yeast,
60 000 species unicellular Budding ascospores Morel
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
•Some fungi reproduce sexually
•Fungi are neither male nor female but occur in mating types
sometimes called “plus” and “minus”
•When two different mating types come together, their hyphae
fuse, give rise to specialized structures that scatter genetically
diverse spores
• Most fungi are haploid throughout most of their life cycle
unlike most eukaryotes
• Ability of some fungi to reproduce sexually and asexually
confers adaptive advantage

• Favourable environment promotes rapids asexual

reproduction, unfavourable conditions ensues genetic
recombination increasing the chances of offspring that will
withstand the new environment.
CLASSIFICATION
•Structure and form of sexual reproduction were originally used for
classification but are no longer sole basis for that
Three major phyla are well known

•Phylum (ZYGOMYCOTA)
•Mainly found in terrestrial soil rich in organic matter
•Hyphae are coenocytic eg Rhizopus stolonifer (common bread mold)
•The hyphae that anchor the mold to the mold and penetrate it is called
rhizoids
•Digestive enzymes produced by rhizoids breakdown organic
compounds to release nutrients
•Other hyphae (stolons) also grow across the bread
• Sexual reproduction occurs when two compatible mating types
conjugate.
• Hphae grow out and touch each other, septum forms and a cell called
gametangium developes
• Gametangium is a sexual reproductive structure containing nucleus of
mating types
• Gametangia within each nucleus divides several times, mix and fuse in
pairs of mating types.
• The fused gametangia is called zygosporangium, forms a thick wall and
becomes dormant
• Germination depends on favourable condition
• Sporangiophore grows from the diploid zygosporangium to produce a
sporangium which ruptures and release haploid spores.
• Life cycle of Zygomycetes fungi. Zygomycetes life cycle have
both asexual and sexual phases in their life cycles.
• A In asexual phase, hyphae produce sporangia bearing numerous
haploid sporangiospores, because of mitosis. These sporangia
rupture and release spores, which germinate again to form
hyphae. (Fig. 5)

• B In the sexual phase, plus and minus haploid (n) mating types
conjugate and create a heterokaryotic zygosporangium (2n),
which fuse to form a diploid zygote formation, as a result of
karyogamy (Fig. 5)
Fig.5: Reproduction in Zygomycota
Phylum BASIDIOMYCOTA
•Commonly called club fungi – produce clublike reproductive
structures called Basidia during sexual reproduction

•Has above the ground spore bearing structure called

Basidiocarp eg Mushrooms
•Mushrooms has stem called stalk and flat structure called cap

•Underside of the cap has rows of gills radiating from the center
•Each gill is lined with thousands of dikaryotic (cell with two
nuclei) basidia
• In each basidium, two nuclei fuse to form zygote (2n) which
undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei

• These develop into four basidiophores released into the air

• Under favourable conditions basidiophores germinate to

produce haploid mycelia that grow unground

• When compatible mating hyphae meet each other they fuse,

form basidiocarp that emerges above the ground.
Fig.6: Reproduction in
Phylum ASCOMYCOTA
•They are differentiated by the presence of saclike
compartments which contain sexually produced spores

•Ascomycetes (sac fungi) live parasitically in various habitats –

freshwater, marine and land

•Sexual reproduction begin when hyphae of two mating types

form male and female haploid gametangia

•Female gametangium called ascogonium and male

gametangium called antheridium
• Ascogonium and antheridium approach each other with a tube
that enables crossing of nucleus from the antheridium

• Dikaryotic hyphae grow out of the ascogonium, intertwine with

the monokaryotic (cells with one nucleus) hyphae of the
original fungi to form visible cuplike structures - ascocarp

• Within the ascocarp, saclike asci develop at the tips of the

dikaryotic hyphae

• Within the asci, haploid nuclei fuse, zygote undergoes meiosis

once, divide again by mitosis to produce eight haploid nuclei
• The eight nuclei form walls and become ascospores released
into the environment.

• When an ascospore germinates a new haploid hyphae emerges

• Example of ascomycetes include the traditional brewers and

bakers yeast – Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It makes bread to
rise, ferments grapes to make wine and grain to make beer.
Fig 7:Reproduction in Ascomycota – life
• Fungi that do NOT have a sexual stage are put in a group called
fungi imperfecti or Deuteromycota

• Most of these are now being incorporated into the three phyla
by mycologist following phylogenetic analysis. Some scientists
still disagree however.
MYCORRHIZAE AND LICHENS

•Mycorrhizae is a symbiotic association between fungus and

plant roots. Majority of plants have this association.

•The fungus absorbs and concentrates phosphates and other

ions for the plant root and provide a secondary root system.

•The fungi receives sugar synthesized by the plant

•Many zygomycetes and basidiomycetes form mycorrhizae

• Lichens represent a symbiotic relationship between a fungus
and a photosynthetic algae
• Most fungi in lichens are ascomycetes

• Algae provides the sugar while the fungus provides moisture,

shelter and anchorage

• Fungus contain acids that decompose rocks making minerals

available to lichens

• Such chemical decomposition contribute to the production of

soil
• Lichens are identified according to their distribution and
structure

• Crustose lichens grow as a layer on surface of rocks and trees

• Fruticose lichens are shrublike and may grow up to 1.5m

• Foliose lichens live on flat surfaces where they form mat-like

growths with tangled bodies
FUNGI AND HUMANS

•They are important to humans

•Cause disease to both humans and plants
•Others serve as important food sources for humans
•Also used to produce chemicals, fuels and pharmaceutical
compounds
• Attack tissues of both plants and animals causing disease
• Compete with us for nutrients by attacking our foods
• Most spores cause mild to serious allergies in some people
• Sneezing and respiratory distress are symptoms of allergic reactions

• Can also infect and poison humans

• May infect the skin, hair, and nails and tissues, ringworm, athlete’s foot
• Candida albicans is the yeast found in the mouth, intestine, vaginal
tract
• It coexist in balance with other microbes like bacteria but when
conditions change during use of antibiotics, pregnancy or illness,
Candida albicans can flourish.
• Dimorphic fungi such as Histoplasma capsulatum, Paracoccidiodes
brasiliensis, Coccidiodes immitis, and Blastomyces dermatitidis can
cause serious disease to internal organs

• If their spores are inhaled can lead to serious respiratory disease and
spread to other organs even death
• Grow as mold on ground but become unicellular when they infect
humans

• Some humans accidentally eat poisonous mushrooms eg Amanita sp

which has dangerous poison
• Aflatoxin produced by some species of Aspergillus cause liver cancer,
sometime found on grains and peanuts
Table 4: Summary of Human Fungal
Diseases Symptoms
Disease Fungus Route of Transmission
Athlete’s foot Fluid filled blisters, scaly Trichophyton sp Contact with skin lesions
skin, itching (Ascomycetes) or or contaminated floor
Epidermophyton sp
Ringworm Ring shaped skin lesions Microsporum, Contact with skin lesions
Trichophyton or contaminated floor or
(Ascomycetes) objects

Vaginal yeast infection Burning sensation, itching, Candida Contact with facial
discharge materials, diabetes,
antibiotic treatments
increase susceptibility
Tinea cruris (joke itch) Intense itching, ring Microsporum, Contact with skin lesions
shaped lesions Trichophyton or contaminated floor or
(Ascomycetes objects

Histoplasmosis Fever, chills, headache, Histoplasma capsulatum Inhalation of airborn

chest pains, non (Ascomycete) candida
productive cough
FUNGI IN INDUSTRY
•Fungi produce many nonfood products beneficial to man
•Eg Penicillium sp produce penicillin, Cephalosporium sp
produce cephalosporin antibiotics, Rhizopus cause chemical
transformation of specific chemicals to make cortisone and
similar drugs.
•Cortisone is used reduce joint swelling
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an important tool in genetic
engineering eg production hepatitis B vaccine by inserting
hepatitis B genes into yeast plasmids
• The yeast uses the inserted viral genes to produce proteins
• Yeast is also used to produce ethanol for automobile use
FUNGI AND FOOD INDUSTRIES
•Many fungi are food sources for humans
•Saccharomyces (yeast) is an important food supplement because it
contains vitamins, minerals + other nutrients
•Mushrooms are also used as food eg Agaricus (white button), shiitake,
portabella mushrooms are found in grocery stores
•Some fungi also produce citric and gluconic acids used in food
processing
• Eg citric acid is used in soft drinks and candies and gluconic
acid is fed to chickens to improve hardness of egg shells
• Ashbya gossipii produces vitamin B2 - important nutritional
supplement
• Some fungi also take away food values eg Basidiomycete at
attack grains causing wheat rust
 TABLE : FOOD PRODUCTS AND
FUNGI
Type of Food Fungus
Cheeses, blue, brie, camembert, Penicillium sp
Gorgonzola, Limburger, Roquefort

Beer, Wine Saccharomyces carlsbergensis,

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Soy products: miso (Japanese), soy Saccharomyces sp

sauce, tempeh (Indonesia), Tofu
(Japanese)
Breads Saccharomyces cerevisiae