4.
Water Application Techniques
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4. Water Application Techniques
Water can be applied to the land for irrigation by various
methods.
These methods are more efficient than the others because the
applied water is used more effectively by the crops and there is
less wastage of water.
Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the
field surface, by applying it beneath the soil surface, by
spraying it under pressure or by applying it in drops.
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Objectives of a Good Method of Application of Water
An adequate amount of water is stored in the root zones of the
plant.
Uniform application of water on the land
Not cause soil erosion problem
Be efficient, with a minimum wastage of water
Water is drained from the land after the irrigation
Fit properly to the boundaries of the land to be irrigated
The method should not be expensive
Not cause water logging and salt problems in the irrigated land.
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Land preparation and field layout
Land leveling or land grading for irrigation is modifying the
surface relief of a field to a planned grade to provide a more
suitable surface for efficiently applying irrigation water.
It requires moving large quantities of earth over considerable
distance.
Proper land leveling is important for efficient surface irrigation.
It involves moving soil in order to have level fields for basin
irrigation or uniform sloping fields for furrow or border strip
irrigation. 4
Cont…
Land levelling operations may be grouped into three phases:
Rough grading
Land levelling
Land smoothing
Criteria for land levelling
Land levelling is influenced by
the characteristics of the soil profile,
prevailing land slope,
rainfall characteristics,
cropping pattern,
methods of irrigation,
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IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation methods are classified as:-
[Link] irrigation [Link]-Surface irrigation
Furrow Irrigation
Border Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
2. Pressurized Irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation
Drip or Trickle Irrigation
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CONT---
[Link] Irrigation:- water is applied to the surface of the land
Surface irrigation refers to a broad class of irrigation in which the
soil surface conveys and distributes water over the irrigated field and
at the same time infiltrates into the underlying profile.
It is the oldest and still the most widely used method of water
application to agricultural land.
water is distributed over the field by overland flow.
A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and covers the field
gradually.
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Components of surface irrigation system
Components:-
The water source
The intake facilities
The conveyance system
The water storage facilities
The field canal and/or pipe system
The infield water use system
The drainage system
Accessibility infrastructure
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Advantages surface irrigation
It is more acceptable to agriculturalists that appreciate the effect of
water shortage on crop yield since it appears easier to apply the depth
required to fill the root zone
It can be developed at the farm level with minimal capital investment
The major capital expense of the surface irrigation system is
generally associated with land grading
Energy requirements for surface irrigation systems come from gravity
Surface irrigations are less affected by climatic and water quality
characteristics
Generally, the gravity flow system is highly flexible, relatively easily
managed method of irrigation 9
Disadvantages of surface irrigation
There is one disadvantage of surface irrigation that confronts every
designer and irrigator
It is very difficult to define the primary design variables, discharge
and time of application, due to the highly spatial and temporal
variability of the soil.
In Water Resources Engineering Different types of surface
irrigation systems used are:
Furrow Irrigation.
Basin Irrigation.
Border Irrigation.
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.
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Furrow Irrigation
Definition:
Furrow irrigation is the most widely used method worldwide for
irrigating row crops.
In furrow irrigation, water no longer flows over the entire soil
surface but is confined to small channels (furrows) between the
crop rows.
It is then gradually absorbed into the bottom and sides of the furrow
to wet the soil.
Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by
channeling the flow along the primary direction of the field using
'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'. 12
CONT---
Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter and spreads
vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir.
Furrows are often employed in basins and borders to reduce the
effects of topographical variation and crusting.
The distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the flow into
each furrow is independently set and controlled as opposed to
furrowed borders and basins where the flow is set and controlled on
a border by border or basin by basin basis.
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CONT---
Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under
many surface irrigation conditions.
The discharge per unit width of the field is substantially reduced
and topographical variations can be more severe.
A smaller wetted area reduces evaporation losses.
Furrows provide the irrigator more opportunity to manage
irrigations toward higher efficiencies as field conditions change for
each irrigation throughout a season.
This is not to say, however, that furrow irrigation enjoys higher
application efficiencies than borders and basins.
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CONT---
There are several disadvantages with furrow irrigation.
These may include:
an accumulation of salinity between furrows;
an increased level of tail-water losses;
the difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows;
the added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow
construction);
an increase in the erosive potential of the flow;
a higher commitment of labor to operate efficiently; and
generally furrow systems are more difficult to automate,
particularly with regard to regulating an equal discharge in each
furrow.
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Furrow Irrigation
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Furrow Irrigation
Furrow irrigation by cutting Furrow irrigation with siphons
the ridge
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Furrow Irrigation
Shapes of furrows mainly depends on the type of soil and
the size of the stream
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Design parameters of furrow irrigation
The size, shape, spacing and length of furrows depend upon the type
of the soil, the type of the crop and the topography of the land. The
following are the main design considerations.
width of furrows is kept large for widely spaced crops and small for
closely spaced crops
The width of the furrows usually varies from 24-40 cm of the
adjacent plots.
Depth
usually between 20 and 30 cm for orchards
for vegetables, and other row crops, such as sugar beet, potatoes,
cotton and tobacco, a depth of 7.5cm to 12.5cm is commonly
adopted
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Cont…
3. Length
The length is shorter for pervious soils as compared to that for
tight-clayey soils.
In general, the furrows of length 50m to 200m are commonly used
Furrow length depend on:-
mainly depends upon the permeability of the soil
It also depends on soil type, stream size, irrigation depth, field size
and shape, slope, farming practice.
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Design parameters of furrow irrigation
But generally,
Furrows can usually be longer on clay soils than
on sandy soils.
Furrows can be longer when a larger stream size
is used for irrigation.
Furrows can be longer when a larger irrigation
depth is applied.
Furrows are usually shorter on steeper sloping
land to prevent erosion.
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Cont…
4. Slope
The steeper slopes lead to high velocity of flow, which may cause erosion of the bed
and sides of the furrows
if the slope is quite flat, the velocity is low. Consequently, deep percolation losses occur
Ideally furrows should have a uniform slope.
A minimum slope of 0.05% (i.e. 1 in 2000) is needed to ensure that water will flow
down the furrow and any excess water can be drained.
The maximum slope depends on the risk of soil erosion
5. Spacing
The spacing of the furrows depends upon the type of the soil
In orchards, the furrows are usually spaced 1 to 2m apart, but the spacing may be as
much 3 to 4m for some plants
Generally one furrow is provided for each row of plants
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Cont…
Furrow Spacing: depends on
Water movement in the soil
E.g. close furrows on sandy soils
Crop
E.g. double rows for onions
Cultivation Practice
E.g. equipment used for cultivation and harvesting
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Cont…
Crops:
Most row crops such as vegetables, cotton, sugar beet and potatoes
The crops are usually planted on raised bed or ridges
Irrigating furrows:
When irrigating furrows, water is supplied to each furrow from the farm
channel using siphons or spills.
Several furrows can be irrigated at the same time depending up on the
discharge available in the farm channel.
The stream size must be large enough for the flow to advance quickly
down the furrow.
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Runoff can be a major problem in furrow irrigation.
Design parameters of furrow irrigation
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(a) graded furrow irrigation system
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(b) contour furrows
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Common faults in furrow irrigation
a) Poor land preparation
Uneven slope and low areas in a field can result in poor water distribution
and water logging.
b) Different soil types along furrow
It is very similar to that for basins and borders. If the soil varies in texture
along the furrow, water distribution will be very uneven.
c) Advance time too long
This is usually the result of using a stream size which is too small, long
furrow, sandy soils.
d) Stopping inflow too soon
If the stream is cut off too soon, it results in a poor distribution of water,
and plants at the end of furrows do not get enough water.
Irrigation Efficiency
On well managed furrows, the irrigation efficiency can be as high as 90%.
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[Link] Irrigation
Definition:
Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to
sloping, long rectangular or contoured field shapes, with free draining
conditions at the lower end.
Here, the land is divided into strips (border) by parallel small earth bunds
called border ridges.
In a border irrigation, each strip is irrigated separately by introducing
water upstream and it progressively covers the entire strip.
Water is applied to individual borders from small hand-dug checks from
the field head ditch.
When the water is shut off, it recedes from the upper end to the lower
end. 34
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Border Irrigation
Borders are different from basins into two important differences:
Borders slope uniformly away from the farm channel.
A uniform distribution of water is obtained by using a small
stream size.
Size and shape of Borders:
Borders are often long and narrow
They are usually rectangular in shape varying in size from 100 –
800m long and 3 – 30m wide.
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Border Irrigation
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Border Irrigation
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Border Irrigation
Size and shape of borders depends on soil type, stream size,
irrigation depth, slope, field size. Generally,
Borders are much longer on clay soils than on sandy soils.
Borders are longer when a larger unit stream size is available.
Borders are longer when a larger irrigation depth is applied.
Borders must be shorter on steeper sloping land to prevent
erosion.
Borders can be wider when larger stream sizes are available.
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Cont…
Crop:
Sloping borders are suitable for nearly any crop except those that
require prolonged ponding.
Border irrigation is suited for crops that can withstand flooding for a
short time e.g. wheat.
It can be used for all crops provided that the system is designed to
provide the needed water control for irrigation of crops.
Soil:
Soils can be efficiently irrigated which have moderately low to
moderately high intake rates but, as with basins, should not form
dense crusts unless provisions are made to furrow or construct raised
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borders for the crops.
Cont…
It is suited to soils between extremely high and very low infiltration
rates.
Land Slope:
Ideally, borders should have a uniform slope along the length and
no cross slope.
The precision of the field topography is also critical, but the
extended lengths permit better leveling through the use of farm
machinery.
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Cont…
The minimum slope along the length of border is usually 0.1% to
ensure water flow down the border.
The maximum slope depends on the risk of soil erosion
Irrigating borders:
When irrigating borders, it is important to use the right unit stream
size for the soil and land slope, and to stop the flow at the right time
The stream size per unit width must be large, particularly following
a major tillage operation, although not so large for basins owing to
the effects of slope.
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Cont…
Deciding when to stop the flow can be a problem. Irrigators often
rely on general guidelines. For example,
On clay soils the inflow is stopped when the advance reaches
0.6 of the way down the border.
On loamy soils inflow is stopped at 0.7 – 0.8 of the way down
the border.
On sandy soils the advance must almost reach the end of the
border before stopping the inflow.
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Border Irrigation
Common Faults in Border Irrigation Practice:
i) Poor land preparation
When a border slopes unevenly, the flow down the border is also uneven.
ii) Different soil types along border
The effect is very similar to that in basins. Water distribution can be very
uneven.
iii) Using wrong stream size
Too much water application usually means that the stream size is too
small. And, it results in high percolation loss.
Too little water application usually means that the stream size is too large.
And, it results in high runoff loss.
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Cont…
iv) Fixed irrigation schedule
Although the right stream size is used, some irrigators choose the
irrigation time to fit with other farm work rather than on the
irrigation needed.
v) Irrigation Efficiency
On well managed borders the irrigation efficiency can be as high
as 80%.
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3. Basin irrigation
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3. Basin irrigation
Definition:
It is the simplest of all methods of irrigation.
It involves dividing the field into a number of small strips of land
called basins.
Each basin is a level area of land surrounded by earth bunds in
which water can be pounded until it infiltrates in to the soil.
If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the
field, it is herein called a basin.
A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of
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irregular and rectangular configurations.
Cont…
It may be furrowed or corrugated,
have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops,
but as long as the inflow is undirected and uncontrolled into these
field modifications, it remains a basin.
Size of Basins:
It depends on soil type, stream size, irrigation depth, field size,
etc. But generally,
Basins are much larger on clay soils than on sandy
Basins can be larger when a large stream size is used.
Basins can be larger when a larger irrigation depth is used
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Cont…
Basins can be served with less command area and field
watercourses than can border and furrow systems because their
level nature allows water applications from anywhere along the
basin perimeter. Automation is easily applied.
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Basin irrigation
Land slope for basin:
The soil surface within each basin must be level.
On sloping and undulating ground the land surface must be re-
shaped into level areas.
Crops grown :
Rice is the most common crop irrigated by basin.
Other crops: alfalfa, maize, ground-nut, fruits
Irrigating basins:
When irrigating basins, the stream size must be large enough for the
flow to advance rapidly across the basins. This will ensure a
reasonably uniform irrigation.
A practical guide line to irrigate basin is to use a stream size large
enough for the flow to reach the far end in one quarter of the contact
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time. This is called the quarter time rule.
Basin irrigation
Common Faults in Basin Irrigation Practice:
i) Poor land preparation
When a basin is constructed on sloping ground and the land is not
leveled, too much water at the lower end.
If a basin is constructed on reasonably level ground but the land has not
been leveled properly, more water on the lower spots and less water at
the higher.
ii) Basins covering more than one soil type
Variations in soil type within a basin can result in water infiltrating much
faster in one place than in another.
iii) Irrigation efficiency
On well managed basins irrigation efficiency can be as high as 90%. 54
Limitations
Soil crusting
Not suited to crops that cannot accommodate inundation.
Precision land leveling is very important to achieve high
uniformities and efficiencies.
Many basins are so small that precision equipment cannot work
effectively.
The perimeter dykes need to be well maintained to eliminate
breaching and waste, and must be higher for basins than other
surface irrigation methods.
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CONT---
To reach maximum levels of efficiency, the flow per unit width
must be as high as possible without causing erosion of the soil.
When an irrigation project has been designed for either small
basins or furrows and borders, the capacity of control and outlet
structures may not be large enough to improve basins
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[Link] irrigation
Pressurized irrigation, delivers water under high pressure to the
point of interest.
With this respect, either a power supply system or an optimum
elevation difference between the critical points to create suitable
head for the water to flow is required.
Water sources, Energy sources (Gravity, Mechanical, Internal
combustion) and distribution network (pipe or canal) are basic
irrigation components.
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Sprinkler irrigation
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Sprinkler irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which
is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping.
It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks
up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must
be designed to enable a uniform application of water.
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Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation
conditions, which favor sprinkler irrigation, are as follows.
Soils too porous for good distribution by surface methods
Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper leveling for
surface irrigation methods
Land having steep slopes and easily erodible soils
Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by surface
irrigation
Land needs to be brought in to top production quality. Sprinkler
systems can be designed and installed quickly
Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted crops,
which require frequent irrigation
Automation and mechanization are practical.
Higher application efficiency can be achieved by properly designed
and operated systems.
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Limitations of sprinkler Irrigation:
Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of
water
Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water
Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amount of
dissolved salts
High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation
High power requirements
Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate can not be irrigated
efficiently in hot windy areas
In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable
evaporation losses of water may take place 65
Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems
Various types of sprinkler systems have been developed in
response to economic and labor conditions, topographic
conditions, special water application needs and the availability of
water and land resources.
Based on the arrangement for spraying irrigation water sprinklers
may be classified as
[Link] nozzles attached to the pipe,
[Link] pipe, and
[Link] sprinklers.
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Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems
1. Fixed Nozzle: Parallel pipes are installed at about 15 meters apart
and supported on rows of posts. Water is discharged at right angles
perpendicularly from the pipeline. The entire 15 m width between
pipelines may be irrigated by turning the pipes through about135°.
2. Perforated sprinkler: Generally, application rates exceeding 20
mm/hr for this system and pressure heads less than 25m, often as low
as 7m. They do not cover a very wide strip.
3. Rotating sprinklers: Extensively used due to its ability to apply
water at a slower rate. It uses relatively large nozzle openings, which
are favorable in water containing silt, and debris since less stoppage of
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sprinklers is experienced.
Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems
2. Classification based on the method of developing pressure:
Pump powered system
Gravity sprinkler system
Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)
3. Classification based on portability and make-up of units:
Sprinkler system may be classified broadly as conventional systems (Periodic move and fixed
systems) and mobile sprinkler machines (periodic move and continuous move system.
Conventional system ( Periodic move and fixed systems)
Different types under this group based on portability and mobility of the different
components are indicated.
Permanent system
Solid set system
Portable system
Hand move (semi portable system) 68
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Sprinkler Irrigation versus Surface irrigation
When comparing sprinkler and surface methods
of irrigation, the following points should be
considered:
Sprinkler systems can be designed so that less
interference with cultivation and other farming
operations occurs and less land is taken out of
production than with surface methods.
Frequent and small depth of water can readily
be applied by sprinkler systems.
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CONT---
Higher water application efficiency can normally be
obtained by sprinkler irrigation.
For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation can be provided at a lower capital investment
per acre of land irrigated than can surface irrigation.
Water measurement is easier with sprinkler than with
surface methods.
Whenever water can be delivered to the field under
gravity irrigation, sprinkler irrigation is particularly
attractive.
When domestic and Irrigation water come from the
same source, a common distribution line can be
frequently used. 71
2.2. Drip Or Trickle Irrigation
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Drip Or Trickle Irrigation
The principle of trickle irrigation is to water the plant by
means of small diameter low pressure plastic
pipelines/laterals placed along the plant row and fixed
with devices called emitters or drippers at selected
spacing to deliver water to the soil near the base of the
plants.
From the emitter, water spreads laterally and vertically
by soil capillary forces augmented in the vertical
movements by gravity. The area wetted by an emitter
depends up on the flow rate, soil type, soil moisture,
and vertical and horizontal permeability of the soil.
Drip method of irrigation is one of the latest methods of
irrigation, which is becoming increasingly popular in
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areas with water scarcity and salt problem.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Drip Irrigation
Advantages
[Link] degree control of water application because of this
drip irrigation can achieve 90% or more application
efficiency, which can hardly be achieved by the other
methods.
[Link] is considerable water saving since the water could
be applied almost precisely to the root zone and there is
no need to wet the entire area between crops.
[Link] the most advantageous method for marginal soils like
sandy and desert soils which cannot be irrigated by other
systems.
[Link] compared to the sprinkler system, the drip
method operates on much lower line pressure thus 74
CONT---
[Link] high soil water potential, i.e. the water
content is always at reasonable potential, and is
available to plants, due to frequent applications.
[Link] method reduces salt concentration in the root
zone, when irrigated with poor quality water. i.e.
there is a possibility to use poor quality water.
[Link] the sprinkler method, drip irrigation permits
the application of fertilizers through the system but
here we have increased precision in application.
[Link] for protected crops like flowers, pot
vegetable and green house.
[Link] of the need for expensive drainage
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Limitations
The disadvantages of the system includes
1. High initial cost of the system.
2. The requirement that the water, must be relatively clear.
Emitters vary in size between 0.5 to 1mm and they could easily
be clogged. Clogging could be:
• Physical clogging: due to sands, clay particles and debris.
• Chemical clogging: due to carbonate or any other chemical
precipitates andencrustation formed due to applied chemical
and/or use of hard water.
3. Salt concentration in soil.
4. Do not change the microclimate like sprinklers.
5. Plastic laterals are liable to mechanical damage by rodents and
human being.
6. Limited root development, with localized irrigation, roots will
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Trickle systems components (equipment)
Components of drip irrigation system
The mainline has a pump to pressurize the system and possibly
a chemical injector to conveniently apply nutrients through the
distribution system.
A primary filter is used to screen the largest particles out of the
system primary pressure gauge on either side of the filter are
used to evaluate when the pressure drop across the filter is high
enough to require back flushing. The final components on the
mainline are a discharge control valve and flow meter
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Emitters
An emitter (dripper) is a device which applies
water to the soil from the distribution system.
The two major categories of emitters are point
source and line source. Both categories have been
successfully used in various cropping situations.
The emitter should be available in small
increments of discharge, i.e., in the order of 1 L/h.
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Criteria for the selection of the various methods
The suitability of the various irrigation methods,
i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation, depends
mainly on the following factors:
natural conditions
type of crop
type of technology
previous experience with irrigation
required labour inputs
costs and benefits.
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Question ????
THANK YOU
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