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MICROCONTROLLER

CHAPTER 1
 microcontroller
A microcontroller is a small , low , cost , integrated circuit that contains a
processor core , memory and programmable input/output peripherals
on a single chip .
• It is essentially a tiny , self-contained computer designed to control
specific function within an embedded systems.
• microcontroller :-
 microprocessor
A microprocessor is core processing unit that requires external
components like memory , peripherals etc. . Meanwhile microcontroller
contain all these in a single chip .
• microprocessor :-
 Comparison in processor and controller
• Microprocessors contain no ram no rom and • Microcontroller contain a fixed amount of
no IO ports on the chip it self . rom , ram , IO ports and a timer on a single
• It enables the designer to decide on the chip .
amount of ram , rom and IO ports needed to • the designer cannot add any memory or IO
fit the task at hand . externally cause there amount is fixed .
• Generally consume more power due to its • Designed for low power consumption ,
higher processing capabilities . making them suitable for low powered
• More complex and powerful designed for battery devices .
handling wide range of tasks . • Simpler than microprocessor optimized for
• Applications are workstations , android specific tasks and cost effectiveness .
phones , laptops and other devices with high • Applications are embedded systems like
processing power . appliances industrial control , automotive
• Some examples are intel i3 10th gen , AMD systems and consumer electronics .
ryzen , snapdragon 888 etc. • Some examples are intel 8031 , Motorola
MC68HC11 , ATmega328 etc.
 Architectures

1. Von neumann
2. Harvard
• Von neumann :- In von neumann architecture both instructions and
data stored in a common memory a single shared bus used to access
both instructions and data because of this the process of accessing
the code or data could cause them to get in each others way and slow
down processing speed of cpu .
.
• Harvard :-
In Harvard architecture both instructions and data
stored in separate memory spaces and have separate buses for code
and instructions allowing for simultaneously access to both which leads
to increase in processing speed
 BUSES

• ADDRESS BUS
• DATA BUS
• CONTROL BUS
Address bus :- specifies the memory locations where data is to be read
or to be written in other words they carry addresses . These buses are
unidirectional as the cpu sends the memory addresses to the memory
controller
Data bus :- carries the actual data being transferred between the cpu ,
memory , and other components these buses are bidirectional
meaning data can flow in both directions ( read to memory and write to
memory)
• Control bus
:- These buses transmits control signals which
coordinates the operations of the different components . These buses are
bidirectional with signals going from CPU to other components examples
Read/write signals , memory/IO signals , interrupt signals , clock signals
 MEMORY
Memory refers to the electronic storage where data and instructions
are held for quick access by the processor . There are two types of
memory
• Volatile :- This type of memory requires power to retain data example
RAM
• Non volatile :- This type of memory retains data even power is off
example ROM and Flash memory
 Different types of ROM
• PROM :- PROM is a user programable memory ,for every bit of the
PROM , there exists a fuse . PROM is programmed by blowing the
fuses if the program information burned into PROM is wrong then
that PROM must be discarded . Since its internal fuses blown
permanently. For this reason , PROM is also referred to as OTP ( one
time programmable )
• EPROM :- EPROM is also called UV-EPROM . EPROM was invented to
allow making changes in the contents of PROM after it is
burned .EPROM can be programmed and erase thousands of time .
The only problem with UV-EPROM is that it takes upto 20min in
erasing contents
• EEPROM :- EEPROM ( electrical erasable programmable
memory )has several advantages over EPROM such as fact that its
method of erasure is electrical and therefore instant , as opposed of
UV-EPROM . Offer more flexibility for updates and changes compared
to UV-EPROM
• FLASH memory :- Since the early 1990s flash memory has become a
popular choice for good reasons . The erasure of entire contents take
less than a second ,or in a flash in addition its erasure method is
electical cause of that sometime it called Flash-EEPROM . Flash
memory can be programmed while it is in socket on the system
board, it is widely used to upgrade the BIOS ROM of the PC.
• MROM:- (Mask ROM) pre-programmed during manufacturing and
cannot be changed . Typically used for fixed unchanging data
 Different types of RAM
• STATIC RAM :- Stores data using a configuration of transistors that retain their
state as long as power is supplied.
• DYNAMIC RAM :- Stores data using a capacitors and transistor pair. The
capacitors hold charge representing a bit of data , but needs to be refreshed
periodically to maintain the charge.

STATIC RAM DYNAMIC RAM

•
Faster than DRAM . Slower than SRAM
•
More expensive than DRAM . More affordable than SRAM
•
Commonly found as cache memory in . The most common type of user replaceable RAM
processors (CPUs) and in other high speed found in computers and in other devices
applications
 Some other types of RAM

• SDRAM (SYNCHRONOUS RAM) :- Synchronizes memory operations

with the system bus for improved speed .
• DDR SDRAM (DOUBLE DATA RATE SDRAM):- A faster version of
SDRAM that transfer data twice per clock cycle. This has evolve
through generations like DDR2 , DDR3 , DDR4 , and the latest DDR5.
• ECC RAM (ERROR CORRECTING CODE RAM) :- A type of RAM that
includes extra bits to detect and correct errors , often used in servers
and workstations where data intrigity is critical
 Memory organization
Memory chips are organized into a number of locations within the IC.
Each location can hold 1 bit , 4 bit , 8 bit or even 16 bits , depending
how it is designed internally . The number of bits that each location can
hold is always equal to the number of data pins on the chip
• How many locations exist inside a memory chip ?
Ans :- That depends on the number of address pins .the number of locations within
a memory IC always equals 2 to the power of the number of address pins .
1. A memory chip contains 2^x locations , where x is the number of address pins .
2. Each location contain y bits , where y is the number of data pins on the chip .
3. The entire chip contain (2^x)*y bits , where x is the number of address pins and
y is the number of data pins on the chip.
Power of 2
Questions
Question
 Speed
• One of the most important characteristics of a memory chip is the
speed at which its data can be accessed . To access the data , the
address is presented to the address pins , the READ pin activated , and
after the certain of time has elapsed, the data shows up at the data
pins . The shorter this elapsed time , the better and , consequently ,
the more expensive the memory chip . The speed of memory chip is
commonly referred to as its access time . The access time of memory
chip varies from few nanoseconds to hundreds of nanoseconds ,
depending on the IC technology used in the design and fabrication
process.
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