Topics to be Discussed
• Superposition Theorem.
• Thevenin’s Theorem.
• Norton’s Theorem.
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Network Theorems
Some special techniques, known as network
theorems and network reduction methods,
have been developed.
These drastically reduce the labour needed to
solve a network.
These also provide simple conclusions and
good insight into the problems.
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Superposition Theorem
The response (current or voltage) in a linear
network at any point due to multiple sources
(current and/or emf)
can be calculated by summing the effects of each
source considered separately,
all other sources “turned OFF” or “made
inoperative”.
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“Turning off” the sources
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Application
Problem : Consider two 1-V batteries in
series with a 1-Ω resistor. Let us apply
the principle of superposition, and find
the power delivered by both the batteries.
(Draw the
circuit)
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Solutions : Powers delivered by each source
working at a time are
P1 = 1 W and P2 = 1 W
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Therefore, the total power delivered by both the
sources working together is
P = P1 + P2 = 1 + 1 = 2 W Click
Is it OK ?
No. The above answer is obviously wrong,
because it is a wrong application of Click
the superposition theorem.
The right answer to the above problem, of
course, is
V 2 (V1 V2 ) 2 (1 1) 2
P 4 W
R R 1
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Example 1
Find the current I in the network given,
using the superposition theorem.
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Solution :
First, consider the current source of 0.5 A working
alone,
0.5 0.3 0.15
I 1 0.375 A
0.1 0.3 0.4
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Next, consider the voltage source of 80 mV working
alone,
3
80 10
I2 0.2 A
0.1 0.3
I I 1 I 2 0.175 A
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Example 2
Using superposition theorem, find current ix
in the network given.
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Solution :
The response due to 10-V source working alone,
10
i1 0.05A
50 150
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The response due to 40-A source working
alone,
150
i2 40 30 A
50 150
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Lastly, the response due to 120-A source
working alone,
50
i3 120 30 A
50 150
Note the negative sign in this response.
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In the end, the total response due to all the
sources working together is
ix i1 i2 i3
0.05 30 30
0.05 A
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Benchmark Example 3
(4th Method)
Find voltage v across 3-Ω resistor by applying
the principle of superposition.
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Solution :
First, the response
due to 4-A source,
Using current divider,
1 2
i 4 A
1 (2 3) 3
v4 i R (2/3 A) (3 Ω) 2.0 V
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Next, the response
due to 5-A source,
Using current-divider, the voltage v5 across 3-Ω Click
1
v5 5 A (3 ) 2.5 V
1 (2 3)
Note the negative sign for this response.
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Lastly, the response
due to 6-V source,
By voltage divider,
Click
3
v 6 6 3.0 V
1 2 3
Click
v v4 v5 v6
2.0 2.5 3.0 2.5 V
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Consider the Benchmark Example
Enumerate all the methods by which we have
solved this Example till now.
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Different Methods Used :
1. Source transformation.
2. Loop Analysis.
3. Node Voltage Analysis.
4. Superposition.
Now, suppose we want the response for 10
different values of RL= 5 Ω, 10 Ω, …, 50 Ω.
Which of the above methods is least laborious ?
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Solution :
The source transformation.
For each value of load resistance, you got
to do 3 solutions.
Total number of solutions :
10 x 3 =30
Is it not too laborious ?
For such a problem, using Thevenin’s
theorem is easiest.
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Thevenin’s Theorem
It was first proposed by a French telegraph
engineer, M.L. Thevenin in 1883.
There also exists an earlier statement of the
theorem credited to Helmholtz.
Hence it is also known as Helmholtz-
Thevenin Theorem.
Also, it is very useful when we wish to find
the response in a single resistance only, in a
big network.
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Any two terminals AB of a network composed
of linear passive and active elements may
by replaced by a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of
1. an equivalent voltage source VTh, and
2. an equivalent resistance RTh in series.
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The voltage VTh is equal to the potential
difference between the two terminals AB caused
by the active network with no external
resistance connected to these terminals. Hence, it
is called open-circuit voltage, Voc.
The series resistance RTh is the equivalent
resistance looking back into the network at the
terminals AB with all the sources within the
network made inactive, or dead.
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Benchmark Example 4
(5th Method)
Again consider our benchmark example to
determine voltage across 3-Ω resistor by
applying Thevenin’s theorem.
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Solution :
• We treat the 3-Ω resistor as load.
• Thevenin voltage V is the open-circuit voltage
Th
(with RL removed).
• We use source transformation.
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After simplifying the network within the
dotted box, we can easily find VTh, Click
VTh 5 1 5 V
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To compute RTh, we turn off all the sources in the
circuit within box and get the circuit
Thus, RTh = 3 Ω.
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Now, applying voltage divider, we get
3
VL 5 2.5 V
33
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Illustrative Example 5
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in
resistor R3 of 2 Ω.
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Solution :
1. Designate the resistor R3 as “load”.
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2. Pull out the load resistor and enclose the
remaining network within a dotted box.
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3. Temporarily remove the load resistor R2,
leaving the terminals A and B open .
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4. Find the open-circuit voltage across the
terminals A-B,
28 7 21
I 4.2 A;
4 1 5
VAB 7 4.2 1 11.2 V
5. This is called Thevenin's voltage,
VTh = VAB = 11.2 V.
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6. Turn OFF all the sources in the circuit
7. Find the resistance between terminals A and
B. This is the Thevenin's resistance, RTh.
Thus, R 1 || 4 14 0.8 Ω
Th
1 4
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8. The circuit within the dotted box is replaced by
the Thevenin’s equivalent, consisting of a voltage
source of VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
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9. The load resistor R3 is again connected to
Thevenin’s equivalent forming a single-loop
circuit.
• The current I3 through this resistor is easily
calculated,
VTh 11.2
I3 4 A
RTh R2 0.8 2
Important Comment
The equivalent circuit replaces the circuit within
the box only for the effects external to the box.
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Example 6
Using Thevenin’s Theorem, find the current in
the ammeter A of resistance 1.5 Ω connected in
an unbalanced Wheatstone bridge shown.
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Solution :
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12
I1 0.75 A and
12 4
12
I2 1.5 A
26
VTh Voc VAB VAD VBD
0.75 4 1.5 6 6 V
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To determine RTh, we replace the voltage sources
by a short-circuit, and find resistance between A
and B.
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• Thus, the Thevenin’s equivalent is as
shown in Fig. (d).
• Now, you can easily calculate current I.
Click
VTh 6
I 1 A
RTh RL 4.5 1.5
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Norton’s Theorem
It is dual of Thevenin’s Theorem.
A two terminal network containing linear
passive and active elements can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit of a constant-current
source in parallel with a resistance.
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The value of the constant-current source is
the short-circuit current developed when the
terminals of the original network are short
circuited.
The parallel resistance is the resistance
looking back into the original network with
all the sources within the network made
inactive (as in Thevenin’s Theorem).
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Example 7
Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit with respect
to the terminals AB for the network shown, and
hence determine the value of the current that
would flow through a load resistor of 5 Ω if it were
connected across terminals AB.
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Solution : When terminals A-B are shorted
10 5
I N I1 I 2 2.5 A
5 10
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Turning OFF the sources,
5 10 10
RN Ω
5 10 3
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RN (10 / 3)
I L I N 2.5 1 A
RN RL (10 / 3) 5
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