Unit-1

Introduction to IoT

[Link] Gummadi
[Link] Professor
gummadiannapurna@[Link]
 Outline

• IoT definition
• Characteristics of IoT
• Physical Design of IoT
• Logical Design of IoT
• IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
• Challenges
 Unit I: Introduction to Internet of Things
• Introduction - Definition and Characteristics of IoT.
• Physical Design of IoT – IoT Protocols.
• Logical Design of IoT -IoT Communication Models,
• IoT Communication APIs.
• IoT Enabling Technologies –
• Wireless Sensor Networks,
• Cloud Computing,
• Big data analytics,
• Communication protocols,
• Embedded Systems.
• IoT Levels and Deployment Templates- Challenges of IOT.
 Starting from the Internet

• Internet appears everywhere in the world

• but it is still a connection between people and people

 What is IoT?
 The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects—
devices, vehicles, buildings and other items embedded with
electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity—that enables
these objects to collect and exchange data.
Internet of Things

IOT

Internet Things
 Definition of IoT
•A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities
based on standard and interoperable communication protocols where
physical and virtual "things" have identities, physical attributes, and virtual
personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated
into the information network, often communicate data associated with
users and their environments.

•The goal of IoT is to extend to internet connectivity from standard devices

like computer, mobile, tablet to relatively dumb devices like a toaster.

• Example:
Smart homes, wearable health monitors, smart irrigation systems.
 Why IoT?

• To enhance efficiency (e.g., smart energy meters reduce wastage),

• To enable real-time monitoring (e.g., in patient healthcare),
• To automate manual tasks (e.g., smart irrigation systems),
• To reduce human intervention and errors.
 General Characteristics of IoT
• Connectivity: Devices must be connected to each other and the cloud.
• Sensing: Devices gather real-time data from the environment.
• Data: IoT generates huge volumes of data requiring processing and
analysis.
• Intelligence: Data is analyzed for smart decision-making.
• Action: Based on the data, actions are taken (e.g., turn off lights when no
one is in the room).
• Energy Efficiency: IoT devices are often low-power and use energy-saving
protocols.
• Scalability: Should support the addition of many devices.
 Characteristics of IoT

• Dynamic & Self-Adapting

• Self-Configuring
• Interoperable Communication Protocols
• Unique Identity
• Integrated into Information Network
 Characteristics of IoT
• Dynamic Global network & Self-Adapting : Adapt the changes w.r.t
changing contexts
• Self Configuring : Eg. Fetching latest s/w updates without manual
intervention.
• Interoperable Communication Protocols : Communicate through various
protocols
• Unique Identity : Such as Unique IP Address or a URI
• Integrated into Information Network : This allows to communicate and
exchange data with other devices to perform certain analysis.

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 History of IoT
• 1970- The actual idea of connected devices was proposed
• 1990- John Romkey created a toaster which could be turned on/off over the Internet
• 1995- Siemens introduced the first cellular module built for M2M
• 1999- The term "Internet of Things" was used by Kevin Ashton during his work at P&G
which became widely accepted
• 2004 - The term was mentioned in famous publications like the Guardian, Boston
Globe, and Scientific American
• 2005-UN's International Telecommunications Union (ITU) published its first report on
this topic.
• 2008- The Internet of Things was born
• 2011- Gartner, the market research company, include "The Internet of Things"
technology in their research
 Physical Design of IoT

• The physical design of an IoT system refers to the actual hardware

elements that make up an IoT device and allow it to interact with
the physical world. It involves the devices, embedded systems,
sensors, and communication technologies.

• Things in IoT

• IoT Protocols
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 Physical Design of IoT:Things in IoT

• The "Things" in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique
identities and can perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring
capabilities.
• IoT devices can:
• Exchange data with other connected devices and applications (directly or
indirectly), or
• Collect data from other devices and process the data locally or
• Send the data to centralized servers or cloud-based application back-ends for
processing the data, or
• Perform some tasks locally and other tasks within the IoT infrastructure,
based on temporal and space constraints
• a) IoT Devices:
Examples of IoT Devices:
• Sensors: Devices that detect changes in the environment.
– Examples: Temperature sensors, gas sensors, proximity sensors.
• Actuators: Devices that perform actions in response to commands.
– Examples: Motors, solenoids, relays (used to open doors, switch valves, etc.)
• Embedded Processors: Small-scale computing systems embedded into devices to process
sensor data and control actuators.
– Examples: Arduino (good for simple sensing), Raspberry Pi (more powerful for multimedia
or networking tasks).
 Core Components of IoT Devices
• Sensors / Actuators:
– Sensors collect real-world data (light, sound, temperature, etc.).
– Actuators carry out actions based on sensor input or commands from a processor.
– Example: A temperature sensor reads the temperature, and if too hot, a fan actuator is turned on.
• Power Supply:
– Provides energy to run the device.
– Can be batteries, rechargeable cells, or solar panels.
– In remote areas, solar power is widely used for sustainable IoT deployments.
 Core Components of IoT Devices
• Microcontrollers / Microprocessors:
– These are the "brains" of IoT devices.
– Microcontrollers (e.g., Arduino): Compact, low-power, ideal for basic tasks.
– Microprocessors (e.g., Raspberry Pi): Higher performance, can run full operating systems,
suitable for complex processing.
– They execute the logic, control sensors, actuators, and handle communications.
• Communication Modules:
– Responsible for connecting devices to each other or to the Internet.
– Includes wireless modules like:
• WiFi modules (ESP8266, ESP32)
• Bluetooth modules (HC-05, BLE)
• Zigbee modules (XBee)
• LoRa modules for long range and low power
• Cellular modules (SIM800L for GSM/3G/4G)
 Generic block diagram of an IoT Device

• Things/Devices are used to build a

connection, process data, provide
interfaces, provide storage, and
provide graphics interfaces in an IoT
system.
• all these generate data in a form
that can be analyzed by an analytical
system and program to perform
operations and used to improve the
system.
 Continue…..
• Connectivity
• Devices like USB host and ETHERNET are used for connectivity between the devices
and server.
• Processor
• A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data are
further used to improve the decision quality of an IoT system.
• Audio/Video Interfaces
• An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record audio and videos in a system.
• Input/Output interface
• To giving input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we use things like UART,
SPI, CAN, etc.
• Storage Interfaces
• Things like SD, MMC, SDIO are used to store the data generated from an IoT device.
 IoT Protocols
• These protocols are used to establish communication
between a node device and server over the internet.
• it helps to send commands to an IoT device and receive
data from an IoT device over the internet.
• we use different types of protocols that present on both
the server and client-side and these protocols are
managed by network layers like

• Application, Transport, Network, and Link layer. 19

 IoT Protocols
• Basic architecture involves four layers, i.e., the Sensing layer, Network layer, Data processing
layer, and Application layer.
Application Layer protocol
• This processed data can be displayed to the user through web portals, apps, or interfaces
provided by the application layer. Users can directly interact and visualize the data obtained from
IoT devices through these interfaces.
Transport Layer/ Data processing layer
• The data collected by IoT devices is processed in the Data processing layer using technologies like
data analytics and machine learning algorithms.
Network Layer
• The Network layer allows communications among devices using network protocols like cellular,
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc.
Link Layer/ Sensing layer
• The Link/Sensing layer contains all the hardware, like sensors, actuators, chips, etc., that collect
information. This layer is connected to the successive layer, which is the network layer, through
protocols.
 IoT Protocols
• There are so many protocols developed for IoT,
then how to choose one??
• A Method to choose which protocol to use is to consider the
environment for which these protocols are designed. Some are
designed for small ranges; some are for wide ranges, high data
rates, low data rates, etc.
• They vary based on power consumption, range, cost, data rate,
etc.
 IoT Protocols
• Link Layer
• 802.3 – Ethernet
• 802.11 – WiFi
• 802.16 – WiMax
• 802.15.4 – LR-WPAN
• 2G/3G/4G
• Network/Internet Layer
• IPv4
• IPv6
• 6LoWPAN low-power devices that have limited processing
capabilities.
• Transport Layer
• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
• UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
• Application Layer
• HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol)
• CoAP(Constrained Application Protocol)
• WebSocket
• MQTT(Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
• DDS (Data Distribution Service)
• AMQP(Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)
• XMPP(Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol )
 Link Layer Protocols
• In this protocols determine how the data is physically sent over
the networks physical layer or medium.
• Ex: Copper Wire, Coaxial Cable, radio wire
• Scope of link layer is the local n/w connection to which host is
attached.
• Hosts on the same link can exchange data packets over the link
layer using link layer protocols
• Link layer determines how the packets are coded and signalled
by the H/w device over the medium to which host is attached.
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 Link Layer Protocols
• 802.3 – Ethernet
• 802.11 – WiFi
• 802.16 – WiMax
• 802.15.4 - LR WPAN
• 2G/3G/4G – Mobile Communication

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 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…Ethernet
• A set of IEEE standards defining wired LAN (Local Area
Network) communication, commonly used in homes and businesses.
• Features:
– High-speed, reliable data transfer.
– Common in industrial IoT (IIoT) and smart buildings.
– Requires physical cabling (Cat5, Cat6).
• Speeds:
Ranges from 10 Mbps (old) to 10 Gbps (modern Ethernet).
• Use Case:
Industrial control systems where reliability is crucial and power is not a
constraint.
 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…Ethernet
This is a collection of wired Ethernet standards for the link
layer.
Sr.N Standard Shared medium(copper 0r
o fiber)
1 802.3 Coaxial Cable…10BASE5 &
shared medium
2 802.3.i Copper Twisted pair
…..10BASE-T
3 802.3.j Fiber Optic……10BASE-F
4 [Link] Fiber…..10Gbits/s

Data Rates are provided from 10Gbit/s to 40Gb/s and higher

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 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…WiFi
• IEEE standard for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN).
• A wireless networking standard for local area networks, enabling devices to connect to
a network without cables.
• Variants:
– 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax (WiFi 4, 5, 6): differ in speed, frequency band, and range.
– Typically operates on 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz bands.
• Features:
– Medium to high bandwidth.
– Medium power consumption.
– High availability in home/office environments.
• Use Case:
Smart homes (e.g., smart TVs, cameras, thermostats), WiFi-enabled sensors.
 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…WiFi
[Link] Standard Operates in
1 802.11a 5 GHz band

2 802.11b and 802.11g 2.4GHz band

3 802.11.n 2.4/5 GHz bands

4 [Link] 5GHz band

5 [Link] 60Hz band

• Collection of Wireless LAN

• Data Rates from 1Mb/s to 6.75 Gb/s
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 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…WiMax
• IEEE standard for Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN). It provides high-speed internet access over longer
distances than Wi-Fi.
• Features:
– Operates over longer distances than WiFi (up to 50 km).
– Provides high-speed broadband access in rural or urban areas.
– Supports both fixed and mobile users.
• Speeds:
Up to 40 Mbps (real-world).
• Use Case:
Connecting IoT hubs in smart cities, public safety applications, or agriculture over wide areas.
• Note:
While less common today due to 4G/5G dominance, it’s still used in some legacy systems.

[Link] Standard Data Rate

1 802.16m 100Mb/s for mobile stations
1Gb/s for fixed stations
 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…LR-WPAN
• (Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Network) IEEE standard for low-power, low-data-rate wireless
networks ,often used in sensor networks and IoT devices.
• Protocols Built on 802.15.4:
– Zigbee
– Thread
– 6LoWPAN
• Features:
– Designed for short-range communication (10–100 meters).
– Very low power consumption.
– Low data rate (~250 kbps).
– Supports mesh networking.
• Use Case:
– Smart lighting, home automation, industrial monitoring.
– Battery-operated sensors (e.g., temperature, motion, smoke).
 IoT Protocols…Link Layer…2G/3G/4G –Mobile
Communication
[Link] Standard Operates in
1 2G GSM-CDMA

2 3G UMTS and CDMA 2000

3 4G LTE

• These are different generations of mobile communication

standards
• Data Rates from 9.6Kb/s (for 2G) to up to 100Mb/s (for 4G)
• IoT devices based on these stds. Communicate over cellular n/ws.
• Are available on 3GPP website
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 Summary Table

Standard Type Range Speed Power Use Common Use

802.3 Wired Local Very High High Industrial networks

802.11 Wireless ~100m Medium–High Medium Smart home, offices

802.16 Wireless ~50 km Medium High Smart city backbone

Low
802.15.4 Wireless ~10–100m (~250kbps) Low Zigbee, Thread devices

Mobile/remote IoT (vehicles,

2G/3G/4G Cellular ~10–50 km Low–High Medium agri)
 IoT Protocols…Network/Internet Layer
the network layer is responsible for:
• Addressing and identifying devices on a network.
• Routing data packets from source to destination.
• Managing congestion and packet forwarding.
• In IoT, the network layer is essential for enabling communication between
devices (nodes) and gateways or the cloud, especially in large-scale or
distributed systems.
Two types are there
• 1. IP (Internet Protocol) IPv4 and IPv6
• 2.6LoWPAN – IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks
 1. IP (Internet Protocol)
• Purpose:
• IP enables the unique identification of every device on the internet or local network
and helps in routing packets between them.
• Versions:
a) IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
• Address Format: 32-bit (e.g., [Link])
• Address Space: ~4.3 billion devices
• Limitation: IP exhaustion due to the rapid growth of connected devices.
• Usage in IoT: Still common in LAN-based IoT or IPv4-based networks.
 1. IP (Internet Protocol)
b) IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
• Address Format: 128-bit (e.g., [Link])
• Address Space: 3.4 × 10³⁸ addresses – virtually unlimited.
• Advantages:
– Simplified header structure.
– Better support for mobile and IoT devices.
– Enables auto-configuration of devices.
– Integrated security (IPsec).
Why IPv6 is important for IoT:
• IoT involves billions of devices—IPv6 ensures each has a unique address.
• Supports direct communication (end-to-end) without NAT (Network Address Translation).
• Improves routing efficiency and security.
2. 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks)
What is it?
• 6LoWPAN is a lightweight adaptation layer that allows IPv6 packets to be transmitted
efficiently over IEEE 802.15.4 networks (used in Zigbee, Thread, etc.).
Why it's needed:
• Standard IPv6 packets are too large (1280 bytes minimum) for small IoT devices that
use 802.15.4 (max frame size ~127 bytes).
• 6LoWPAN enables compression and fragmentation to fit IPv6 into these small frames.
Features of 6LoWPAN:
• Header Compression: Shrinks IPv6 headers from 40+ bytes to a few bytes.
• Fragmentation & Reassembly: Splits data into smaller chunks and reassembles them
at the destination.
• Mesh Networking: Supports multihop routing, allowing low-power devices to forward
data through neighbors.
 Comparison
Feature IPv4 IPv6 6LoWPAN

Address Size 32-bit 128-bit Uses IPv6 addresses

Yes, for low-power, low-bandwidth

Suitable for IoT? Limited Yes devices

Packet Overhead Medium High Very Low (via header compression)

Power Efficiency Medium Lower High

Adaptation layer between Network &

Protocol Layer Network Network Link

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 IoT Protocols…Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication between devices or
applications across a network.
It ensures that data is delivered:[Link] [Link] [Link] the correct order
• Message transfer capability can be set up on connections
• Connection may be either using handshakes(as in TCP) or without handshakes /
acknowledgements (As in UDP)
• It provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow-control and congestion
control
Transport Layer Protocols:
• TCP (reliable)
• UDP (lightweight and fast)
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 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable transport layer protocol used
for data transmission across IP networks. It establishes a virtual
connection between sender and receiver before data transfer begins.
TCP Works (Simplified Flow):
• Connection Setup (3-way handshake)
• Data Transmission with Acknowledgments
• Error Detection and Retransmission
• Flow and Congestion Management
• Connection Termination (4-step FIN process)
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• Type: Connection-oriented (uses a 3-way handshake)
• Reliability: High – guarantees delivery, order, and data
integrity
• Error Recovery: Automatic retransmission of lost packets
• Use Cases in IoT:
– Applications where data accuracy is critical
– Examples: Remote firmware updates, financial transactions, secure
IoT applications
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• UDP is a connectionless, lightweight transport layer protocol that
sends messages, called datagrams, without establishing a dedicated
end-to-end connection. It is designed for fast, low-
overhead transmission, making it ideal for real-time and resource-
constrained applications.
UDP Works:
• Data is packaged into datagrams and sent directly to the receiver.
• No acknowledgment or sequencing.
• No guarantee of delivery or duplication avoidance.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• Type: Connectionless (no handshake)
• Reliability: Low – no guarantees for delivery or order
• Error Recovery: None – best effort delivery
• Use Cases in IoT:
– Lightweight and time-sensitive applications
– Examples: Real-time sensor data, video streaming, DNS queries, CoAP
protocol
Comparison Between TCP and UDP in IoT

Feature TCP UDP

Connection Oriented (3-way handshake) Connectionless

Reliability High (guaranteed delivery) Low (no guarantee)
Speed Slower Faster
Overhead Higher Very low
 IoT Protocols…Application Layer

• The Application Layer is the topmost layer in the network protocol stack. It
provides services and interfaces directly to the IoT applications (such as smart
homes, healthcare monitors, industrial automation systems) and facilitates
communication between devices and users.
It enables:
• Device data exchange
• Control operations
• Human-machine interfaces
• Integration with cloud platforms
IoT Protocols…Application Layer…Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): HTTP is a request–response protocol used by web browsers and servers to
communicate over the internet. It operates over TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and is part of
the application layer in the OSI [Link] IoT, HTTP is used for communicating between IoT devices and
web/cloud services, often through RESTful APIs.
HTTP Works:
• The client (IoT device) sends a request to a server (cloud or local).
• The server processes the request and sends back a response.
• The communication uses methods like:
• GET – retrieve data
• POST – send data
• PUT – update data
• DELETE – remove data
• Pros:
• Widely supported and understood
• Can work with REST APIs
• Cons:
• Heavy for constrained devices (large headers, high overhead)
• Example: A smart irrigation controller receives commands via HTTP REST API.
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 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…CoAP

• CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):CoAP is a lightweight web transfer protocol designed specifically
for constrained devices and low-power networks commonly found in IoT environments. It is similar to HTTP but
optimized for low-bandwidth, low-power scenarios.
• Transport: UDP
• Features:
• Lightweight and efficient
• Supports multicast, caching, and low power usage
• Pros:
• Ideal for low-power and lossy networks (LLNs)
• Works similarly to HTTP but much lighter
• Cons:
• Less mature than HTTP in some ecosystems
• Example: Soil moisture sensors in agriculture sending data using CoAP.

46
 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…WebSocket
• WebSocket: It is a full-duplex, bidirectional communication protocol that runs over TCP. Unlike traditional HTTP
(which is request–response based), WebSocket allows persistent connections, enabling real-time data exchange
between a client and a server.
WebSocket Works (Simplified Flow):
• A client sends an HTTP request with a WebSocket upgrade header.
• The server responds and establishes a WebSocket session.
• Both sides can send and receive data at any time over a single connection.

• Features:
• Enables real-time, bi-directional communication
• Maintains a persistent connection between server and client
• Pros:
• Ideal for live data streaming
• Lower latency than polling-based protocols like HTTP
• Cons:
• More complex than simple REST interfaces
• Example: Real-time dashboard showing live air quality sensor data via WebSocket.

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 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…MQTT
• MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport):MQTT is a lightweight, publish-subscribe messaging protocol designed
for low-bandwidth, high-latency, or unreliable networks. It is especially useful for IoT devices that have limited processing
power and memory.
• MQTT Works:
• Devices (clients) publish messages to a topic (e.g., home/temp).
• Other devices subscribe to that topic to receive updates.
• A broker (central server like Mosquitto) manages the messages and routes them.
• Features:
– Small message footprint
– Excellent for unreliable or low-bandwidth networks
– Uses topics for publishing and subscribing
• Pros:
– Highly scalable
– Power efficient
• Cons:
– Requires an MQTT broker (like Mosquitto)
• Example: Smart home devices like door sensors publishing messages to /home/door1/status.
 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…XMPP
• XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol):XMPP is a communication protocol based on XML for real-
time, decentralized messaging, originally designed for instant messaging. It has been extended for IoT
applications, enabling machine-to-machine (M2M) communication.
• Transport: TCP
• Features:
• Originally for chat apps, adapted for IoT
• Real-time, decentralized communication
• Pros:
• Open and extensible
• Secure messaging supported
• Cons:
• XML-based: can be verbose for constrained devices
• Example: Remote monitoring and alert messaging in connected healthcare systems.

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 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…DDS
• 5. DDS (Data Distribution Service): DDS is a middleware protocol and API standard for real-time, scalable, and
high-performance data exchange. It is based on a publish–subscribe model, and is especially used in mission-
critical IoT applications like autonomous vehicles, robotics, healthcare, and defense.
• It is defined by the OMG (Object Management Group) standard.
• Type: Real-time data-centric publish/subscribe middleware
• Transport: TCP/UDP
• Features:
• Peer-to-peer architecture (no broker needed)
• High throughput and low latency
• Pros:
• Designed for mission-critical systems
• Supports real-time and QoS policies
• Cons:
• Complex to configure
• Heavier than MQTT/CoAP
• Example: Industrial robotics systems requiring fast and reliable communication between subsystems.

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 IoT Protocols…Application Layer…AMQP
• 6. AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol): AMQP is an open-standard messaging protocol designed
for reliable, secure, and interoperable communication between systems. It is most commonly used in enterprise
messaging, financial systems, and now increasingly in IoT backends where robust message queuing is essential.
AMQP Works:
• Producer sends a message to an exchange.
• The exchange uses routing rules to send it to one or more queues.
• Consumer(s) receive messages from those queues.
• Acknowledgments ensure reliable delivery.

• Features:
• Reliable queuing, delivery guarantees
• Suited for business and cloud integration
• Pros:
• Advanced features like transaction support
• Secure and reliable
• Cons:
• Heavier footprint—not suitable for small IoT devices
• Example: Smart energy meters sending usage data to a central billing platform.
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 Logical Design of IoT
• Logical design of IoT system refers to an abstract representation
of the entities & processes without going into the low-level
specifies of the implementation.
• The logical design defines how IoT systems are structured
conceptually—how devices, data, and services interact to deliver
intelligent behavior. It focuses on software architecture, data
flow, and communication mechanisms.
• it uses
• IoT Functional Blocks
• IoT Communication Models
• IoT Communication APIs
 IoT Functional Blocks
•An IoT system consist number
of functional blocks that provide
the system the capabilities for
identification, sensing, actuation,
communication and
management.
•Functional blocks are Devices,
services, communication,
security,application and
management.
 IoT Functional Blocks

Functional blocks are:

• Device: These devices are used to provide sensing and monitoring control functions
that collect the data from the outer environment.
• Communication: Handles the communication for the IoT system.
• Refers to how the device sends/receives data to/from other devices or servers.
• Uses communication technologies like WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc.
• Data Processing:Data collected from the device is cleaned, filtered, and analyzed.
• Processing can be:
– Local (on the device itself or edge node),
– Cloud-based (for deeper analytics and storage),
– Real-time or batch.
 IoT Functional Blocks

• Services: Services provide actionable outcomes from data

processing.
• services for device monitoring, device control service,
data publishing services and services for device discovery.
• Examples:
– Notifying a user of abnormal heart rate,
– Automatically turning on irrigation when soil moisture is low.
 IoT Functional Blocks

• Management: This block provides various functions that are

used to manage an IoT system.
• Security: this block secures the IoT system and by providing
functions such as authentication , authorization, message and
content integrity, and data security.
• Application:The final user-facing interface or solution.
• It is an interface that provides a control system that use by
users to view the status and analyze of system.
 General Communication Models:

• Device-to-Device (D2D):
– Direct communication between devices using short-range protocols like
Bluetooth.
• Device-to-Gateway:
– Devices send data to a local gateway which forwards to the cloud.
• Device-to-Cloud:
– Devices communicate directly with cloud servers.
• Back-End Data Sharing:
– Enables data sharing with third parties or analytics services.
 IoT Communication Models
• In IoT systems, devices must communicate with each other, with
servers, and with users. This communication can follow
different architectural models, depending on the requirements for
speed, reliability, and scalability.
• There are four types of communication models in IoT:
1. Request-Response
2. Publish-Subscribe
3. Push-Pull
4. Exclusive Pair
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 Request-Response communication model
• Request-Response is a communication model
in which the client sends requests to the
server and the server responds to the
requests.

• When the server receives a request, it

decides how to respond, fetches the data,
retrieves resource representations,
prepares the response, and then sends the
response to the client.
Protocols Used:
•HTTP
•CoAP (in Confirmable mode)

Example in IoT:
A smart meter requests its configuration
settings from a cloud server and receives the
response instantly.
 Publish-Subscribe communication model
• Publish-Subscribe is a communication model
that involves publishers, brokers and
consumers.
• Publishers are the source of data. Publishers
send the data to the topics which are managed
by the broker. Publishers are not aware of the
consumers.
• Consumers subscribe to the topics which are
managed by the broker.
• When the broker receives data for a topic from the
publisher, it sends the data to all the subscribed
consumers.
Example in IoT:
A temperature sensor publishes data
to home/room1/temp, and a display or controller
subscribed to that topic receives the data.
Protocols Used:
•MQTT
•AMQP
•DDS
 Push-Pull communication model
• Push-Pull is a communication model in
which the data producers push the data
to queues and the consumers pull the
data from the queues. Producers do not
need to be aware of the consumers.
• Queues help in decoupling the messaging
between the producers and consumers.
• Queues also act as a buffer which helps in
situations when there is a mismatch between
the rate at which the producers push data
and the rate rate at which the consumers pull
data.
Example in IoT:
A fleet of delivery drones pushes telemetry
data to a queue, and a backend analytics
service pulls the data for processing at its own
pace.
Protocols/Technologies:
AMQP
 Exclusive Pair communication model
• Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully
duplex communication model that uses
a persistent connection between the client
and server.
• Once the connection is setup it remains
open until the client sends a request to
close the connection.
• Client and server can send messages to
each other after connection setup.
Example in IoT:
A factory sensor sends readings only to its
paired controller via a secure, exclusive
channel.
Protocols Used:
•WebSocket
•Bluetooth
•TCP sockets
Comparison of Communication Model
Communicatio Example
Model n Type Use Case Protocol

Request– Device config

Response Synchronous requests HTTP, CoAP

Publish– Sensor-to-cloud
Subscribe Asynchronous updates MQTT, DDS

Data ingestion
Push–Pull Buffered transfer pipelines AMQP, Kafka

Real-time control
Exclusive Pair One-to-One or alerts WebSocket, TCP
 IoT Communication APIs
• An IoT API (Application Programming Interface) is a software bridge that allows
different devices, services, and applications in an IoT ecosystem to communicate and
interact with each other.
Think of APIs as the rules and formats that let an IoT device:
• Send data to a cloud service
• Receive commands from a mobile app
• Interact with other devices
• APIs enable standardized communication, making IoT systems
more interoperable, scalable, and manageable.

There are two types of APIs:

• 1. REST-Based Communication API
• 2. WebSocket-Based Communication API 64
 REST-based Communication APIs
• REST API stands for REpresentational State Transfer API. It is a type of API
(Application Programming Interface) that allows communication between
different systems over the internet. REST APIs work by sending requests and
receiving responses, typically in JSON(JavaScript Object Notation) or XML
format, between the client and server. It act as a bridge between devices and
web services.
• REST APIs use HTTP methods (such as GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to define actions
that can be performed on resources. These methods align with CRUD (Create,
Read, Update, Delete) operations, which are used to manipulate resources
over the web.
• A request is sent from the client to the server via a web URL, using one of the
HTTP methods. The server then responds with the requested resource, which
could be HTML, XML, Image, or JSON, with JSON being the most commonly
used format for modern web services.
REST-based Communication APIs
 REST-based Communication APIs
Key Features of REST APIs
• Stateless Communication: Each request from a client to the server must contain all the information
needed to understand and process the request. The server does not store any information about the
client's previous requests.
• Client-Server Architecture: RESTful APIs are based on a client-server model, where the client and server
operate independently, allowing scalability.
• Note: Scalability refers to a system’s ability to handle increasing amounts of work or growing numbers of
devices/users without losing performance.
• Cacheable: It means that a response from a server can be stored (cached) either by the client or an
intermediary (like a proxy), so it can be reused later without contacting the server again.
• Uniform Interface: REST APIs follow a set of conventions and constraints, such as consistent URL paths,
standardized HTTP methods, and status codes, to ensure smooth communication.
• It means that all parts of a system (like clients and servers) communicate using a standard, consistent
way — no matter what type of device or service is involved.
• Layered System: REST APIs can be deployed on multiple layers, which helps with scalability and security.
• Layered System means that an IoT or network system is designed in separate, hierarchical layers, where
each layer has a specific function, and components in one layer interact only with the layer directly
 WebSocket-based Communication APIs
• WebSocket APIs allow bi- directional,
full duplex communication between
clients and servers.
• The WebSocket API makes it possible to
open a two-way interactive
communication session between the
user's browser and a server. With this
API, you can send messages to a server
and receive responses without having to
poll the server for a reply.
• WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair
communication model
 WebSocket feature and its benefit in IoT:
Real-Time Updates
• It means WebSocket allows data to be sent and received instantly without delay.
• Benefit in IoT: Useful for applications that need immediate feedback — like motion detectors, fire alarms, or live
temperature dashboards. As soon as data changes, the update is pushed to the client or server without waiting for a
request.
Persistent Connection
• it means: Once established, a WebSocket connection stays open and active.
• Benefit in IoT: Reduces the delay and resource usage caused by repeatedly opening and closing connections (as in REST).
This is critical in systems that exchange data frequently, such as robotic control, industrial monitoring, or vehicle
tracking.
Low Overhead
• it means: WebSocket uses a compact frame format, so it transmits only essential data without large headers.
• Benefit in IoT: Saves bandwidth and energy, especially in low-power, low-data-rate environments like smart agriculture
sensors or battery-powered wearables.
Server Push Support
• What it means: The server can send data to the client at any time without the client having to request it first.
• Benefit in IoT: Ideal for event-driven applications. For example, a security camera can immediately notify the user when
motion is detected, or a smart grid system can instantly broadcast usage alerts.
• Let me know if you'd like this as a visual comparison table or in a slide-friendly format for presentations.
 IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
• IoT levels represent the layers of architecture involved in building a complete IoT system — from sensing
physical data to delivering business value. These levels form a logical stack that guides system design and
operation.
• IoT Deployment Templates are predefined models for deploying IoT solutions in various domains. They
help in standardizing and customizing IoT architecture based on specific needs.
An IoT system comprises of the following components:
• Device
• Resource
• Controller Service
• Database
• Web Service
• Analysis Component
• Application
 IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
•Device: The device is the physical object embedded with sensors and/or actuators.
It allows identification, remote sensing, actuating and remote monitoring
capabilities.
•Function:
• Sensors collect data from the environment (e.g., temperature, motion).
• Actuators respond to data by taking action (e.g., turning on a fan).
• Resource:Resources are software components on the IoT device for
accessing, processing, and storing sensor information, or controlling
actuators connected to the [Link] also include the software
components that enable network access for the [Link] defines
the capabilities or functions of a device.
•Function:
• Represents sensor/actuator operations as programmable RESTful
endpoints or callable services.
• Exposes data and control mechanisms to external systems.
 IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
• Controller Service:It acts as the central manager or coordinator of the [Link] is a native service that
runs on the device and interacts with the web services. It sends data from the device to the web
service and receives commands from the application (via web services) for controlling the device.
Function:
Manages device interactions
Executes business logic
Routes data between resources and backend systems
• Database: It Stores data for analysis and historical [Link] can be either local or in the cloud and
stores the data generated by the IoT device.
Function:
Collects sensor readings
Logs events, alerts, and user actions
Enables querying and reporting
• Web Service:It Provides a communication interface between devices, apps, and cloud. Web services serve
as a link between the IoT device, application, database and analysis components. Web service can be
either implemented using HTTP and REST principles (REST service) or using WebSocket protocol
(WebSocket service).
Function:
Hosts APIs (e.g., REST, MQTT, WebSocket)
Enables remote access to data and control commands
Secures communication via HTTPS, tokens, etc.
 IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
• Analysis Component: It Performs data processing and analytics. The Analysis Component is responsible
for analyzing the IoT data and generate results in a form which are easy for the user to understand.
Function:
– Converts raw data into insights using AI, ML, or statistical methods
– Detects anomalies, predicts trends, sends alerts
• Application:The user-facing interface of the system. IoT applications provide an interface that the users
can use to control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Applications also allow users to view
the system status and view the processed data.
Function:
– Allows users to monitor and control devices
– Presents data in dashboards, charts, notifications
– Supports user commands and personalization
 IoT Level-1

• A level-1 IoT system has a single node/device that performs

sensing and/or actuation, stores data, performs analysis and
hosts the application

• Level-1 IoT systems are suitable for modeling low- cost and low-
complexity solutions where the data involved is not big and the
analysis requirements are not computationally intensive.
IoT Level-1
 IoT Level-1

• Example: Home automation

• Controlling the lights and home appliances by single node
• Device used is electronic relay switches
• Local database maintains the status information of each light or
appliance
• Controller service continuously monitors the state of each light
or appliance and triggers the relay switches accordingly
• Device is connected to internet
• Remote accessing is possible
76
IoT – Level 1 Example …Home Automation System

77
 IoT Level-2

• A level-2 IoT system has a single node that performs sensing and/or
actuation and local analysis.
• Data is stored in the cloud and application is usually cloud- based.
• Level-2 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved
is big, however, the primary analysis requirement is not
computationally intensive and can be done locally itself.
IoT Level-2
IoT – Level 2 Example …Smart Irrigation

80
 IoT Level-3

• A level-3 IoT system has a single node. Data is stored

and analyzed in the cloud and application is cloud- based.
• Level-3 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the
data involved is big and the analysis requirements are
computationally intensive.
IoT Level-3
IoT – Level 3 Example …Tracking Package
Handling
Sensors used accelerometer and gyroscope

83
 IoT Level-4

• A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local

analysis. Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud-
based.

• Level-4 contains local and cloud- based observer nodes which

can subscribe to and receive information collected in the
cloud from IoT devices.

• Level-4 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where multiple

nodes are required, the data involved is big and the analysis
requirements are computationally intensive.
IoT Level-4
 IoT – Level 4 Example …Noise Monitoring
Sound Sensors are used

86
 IoT Level-5

• A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node.
• The end nodes that perform sensing and/or actuation.
• Coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and sends to the cloud.
• Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
• Level-5 IoT systems are suitable for solutions based on wireless sensor networks, in
which the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are computationally
intensive.
IoT Level-5
 IoT Level-6

• A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform
sensing and/or actuation and send data to the cloud.
• Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
• The analytics component analyzes the data and stores the results in the cloud
database.
• The results are visualized with the cloud-based application.
• The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and
sends control commands to the nodes.
IoT Level-6
 Challenges of IoT

• Security & Privacy: Data breaches, device hacking.

• Interoperability: Devices from different vendors must work
together.
• Scalability: Managing a large number of devices.
• Power Management: Many devices operate on limited power.
• Network Connectivity: Reliability and latency issues.
• Data Management: Huge volumes of data require storage and
processing.
 1. Security & Privacy
• Issue:
• IoT devices often have limited computational resources and may not support strong encryption or secure
boot mechanisms. This makes them vulnerable to cyberattacks, such as:
• Data breaches: Sensitive personal or business data can be intercepted.
• Device hacking: Attackers may take control of devices (e.g., a hacked smart lock or pacemaker).
• Botnets: Weak devices can be used in DDoS attacks (e.g., Mirai botnet).
• Examples:
• A baby monitor getting hacked to eavesdrop.
• Hackers controlling smart lights or security cameras in homes.
• Need:
• Strong encryption
• Authentication and access control
• Regular software updates
 2. Interoperability
• Issue:
• There is no universal standard for IoT devices. Devices from different manufacturers may use different:
• Communication protocols (MQTT, CoAP, HTTP)
• Data formats
• Platforms or APIs
• This leads to fragmentation and complexity in integration.
• Example:
• A smart door lock and a smart camera from two different brands may not work together unless a bridge
system (like a smart hub) is used.
• Need:
• Standardization efforts (e.g., IEEE, IETF, OCF)
• Open APIs and middleware solutions
 3. Scalability
• Issue:
• Managing millions of IoT devices becomes increasingly difficult as systems grow. Challenges include:
• Device registration and lifecycle management
• Network congestion
• Addressing and routing (IPv6 helps here)
• Over-the-air (OTA) updates at scale
• Example:
• Smart city deployments may involve 100,000+ devices (traffic sensors, cameras, lights) that must be monitored and
updated.
• Need:
• Scalable cloud infrastructure
• Edge computing for local processing
• Efficient IoT platforms (like AWS IoT, Azure IoT Hub)
 4. Power Management
• Issue:
• Many IoT devices are deployed in remote or inaccessible locations and operate on battery or solar power.
Challenges include:
• Battery life optimization
• Energy-efficient communication (e.g., duty cycling)
• Power-aware software and hardware
• Example:
• A soil moisture sensor in a field may need to operate for months without maintenance.
• Need:
• Low-power hardware (e.g., ESP32, ARM Cortex-M)
• Protocols like LoRa, Zigbee, NB-IoT
• Energy harvesting solutions
 5. Network Connectivity
• Issue:
• IoT systems depend heavily on uninterrupted connectivity. Challenges include:
• Latency: Some applications (like healthcare or industrial control) are sensitive to delays.
• Reliability: Network outages can disrupt data collection or automation.
• Coverage: Rural or indoor environments may lack signal coverage.
• Example:
• A delay in communication between a smoke detector and a smart alarm system can cause serious
safety risks.
• Need:
• Redundant and mesh networks
• Edge computing to handle temporary disconnections
• Reliable and adaptive protocols
 6. Data Management
• Issue:
• IoT devices generate massive volumes of data, leading to challenges in:
• Storage: Keeping and organizing historical data.
• Processing: Real-time analytics vs. batch processing.
• Security and Compliance: Ensuring data privacy and legal compliance (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA).
• Example:
• A hospital with hundreds of patient monitoring devices must store and analyze critical health data
while meeting strict privacy regulations.
• Need:
• Cloud and fog computing models
• Big data analytics platforms (e.g., Apache Kafka, Spark)
• Structured data pipelines