SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE NAME: ROAD SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

COURSE CODE: B22EDO701
SEMESTER : VII
FACULTY NAME : Mr. Sreenatha M
Academic year : 2025-26
COURSE OVERVIEW
The vehicle population in India is growing at an exponential rate. This
phenomenon is bringing in its wake a host of health related, environmental,
safety and behavioural problems in the society. The problem is compounded
due to absence of effective means of mass transportation system in most
big cities in India. Introduction of this course at Undergraduate level is an
attempt to inculcate road sense, discipline and social consciousness and
prevent many preventable accidents and save precious lives.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
This course enables graduating students to learn
1. To educate students about the road and its effect on accident, analysis of accidents
and the counter measures for accident prevention.
2. To make students familiar with the safety measures, traffic signs, safety practices for
road users.
3. To give students an overview of black spots identification, corrective measures,
preparation of checklist for road safety audit.
4. To educate students about traffic management measures and use of ITS in-road safety.
5. To educate students about Safer road users through training, learning and awareness
raising
6. To encourage to developing an effective road safety culture for the better society.
COURSE OUTCOME
This course enables graduating students to learn
CO1:Discuss road safety issues, traffic signs, and precautionary measures to enhance road user
safety.
CO2:Describe countermeasures at hazardous locations through accident analysis and road safety
audit checklists
CO3:Evaluate traffic management measures and describe safety practices during road construction
CO4:Illustrate the role of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) in preventing road accidents
CO5:Illustrate accident analysis techniques and assess their effects.
CO6:Analyse the traffic system from a road safety perspective and propose improvements
COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT-I
Road accidents and safety: Road accidents: Causes - Collection of data, Standard definitions,
Condition and Collision Diagram, influence of road and its effects on accidents; Analysis of
individual accidents to arrive at real causes- Road safety issues and various measures for road
safety- Engineering, education and enforcement measures for improving road safety.
UNIT-II
Safety in road construction zones, traffic control devices, signs, precautions to be taken for
workmen safety, road user safety-innovative ideas in road safety- Safety for pedestrian and
cyclist .Management of Road Safety- Meaning and interpretation of various road signs,
management of speed limits and enforcement of safety rules, fundamentals of vehicle maintenance
for better safety on the road.
COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT-III
Participation of Public in ensuring safe driving conditions on the road, prevention of driving under
influence of alcohol, drugs and intoxicants, Vehicle parking rules, overtaking rules, stringent
penalties for repeated violations. Accident investigation- problem diagnosis, development of counter
measures, checklists for counter measures- Operating the road network for safety, highway operation
and counter-measures.
UNIT-IV
Traffic Management Techniques- Traffic Management Systems for Safety, Road safety audit,
principles-procedures and practice, code of good practice and checklists. and Tools for Safety
Management Systems, Road Safety Audit Process, Approach to Safety, Road Safety Improvement
Strategies, ITS and Safety.
UNIT 1 - ROAD ACCIDENTS AND
SAFETY
Road accidents: Causes - Collection of data, Standard definitions, Condition and
Collision Diagram, influence of road and its effects on accidents; Analysis of
individual accidents to arrive at real causes- Simple Problems - Economic
evaluation of improvement measures by "before and after studies" Counter
measures at hazardous locations. Road safety issues and various measures for road
safety- Engineering, education, and enforcement measures for improving road
safety
ROAD ACCIDENTS
Definition - An accident which occurred or originated on open road,
open to public traffic resulting in either injury or loss of life or damage
to property in which at least one moving vehicle is involved.
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS 1

1. Fatal/
Serious Injury
2

2. Minor injury

3. Injuries requires 3
first aid or
scratches/scrapes

4. Property damage
4
CAUSES FOR ACCIDENTS

1. Road Related
- Road Geometry
- Pavement Surface Characteristics
2. Traffic Related
- Vehicle Related
- Human Related
3. Environment Related
- Natural Interference’s (Air, Light)
- Artificial Interference’s (Pollution and Hygiene)
ROAD GEOMETRY
 Cross Sectional Elements
• Carriageway width
• Width and state of shoulders / kerbs
• Earthwork profile
• Drainage features
 Facilities for pedestrians / special user groups
 Sight Distance
 Radius of Horizontal Curves
 Grades
• Skid Resistance
PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
• Light Reflecting Characteristics
TRAFFIC RELATED
Vehicle Related -
1) Traffic Volume
2) Speed of Vehicles
3) Traffic Operation
Human Related -

Physical Characteristics - 1) Permanent

2) Temporary

Permanent Characteristics - 1) Vision

2) Hearing
3) Strength
ENVIRONMENT RELATED

 Poor visibility (e.g: heavy rain, blind corners, inadequate lighting)

 Ambient temperatures (e.g: heat emanating from machinery,

insufficient air conditioning, outdoor work in cold weather)

 Slippery walking surfaces (e.g: wet floors, oily spills, icy walkways)

 Poor ventilation

 Noise levels, which can either contribute to hearing loss or prevent

workers fromhearing warning signals

COLLECTION OF ACCIDENT DATA
Data collection is the first step in accident study. The standard form for collection of

accident data has been suggested by IRC: 53-2012- ROAD ACCIDENT

RECORDING FORMS A-1 AND A-4.
1)toGeneral
The details be collected are mentioned below with special headings:

2) Location
3) Details of vehicle involved
4) Nature of accident
5) Road condition & Traffic condition
6) Primary cause of accident
7) Accident cost
COLLECTION OF ACCIDENT DATA
Primary Data & Secondary Data: The data to be collected should comprise all
of these parameters:
1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like
fatal, serious, minor
2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident
3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading
detail, vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics,
type of traffic, traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already
mentioned) which are the main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury
and casualty.
 Storing of Data

The purposes are as follows:

1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of

accident occur.

2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the

causes of accidents.

3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large

number of accidents occurs.

4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident-related

factors to give insight into general trends, common casual factors, driver
 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:

a. Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in all accidents
fatal or injurious.

b. Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all accidents at which
an officer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly accidents involving
serious injury required emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy
property damage.

2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of

skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of final position of vehicles,
examination of condition and functioning of traffic control devices and other road equipment.
 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and
interpretation of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight
distance, preparing drawing of after accident situation, determination of critical and
design speed for curves is done.

4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from

whatever data is available how the accident occurs from the available data. It is
professionally referred as determining behavioral or mediate causes of accident.

5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred from
the data available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies.
ACCIDENT DATA ANALYSIS
Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:

1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and

relationships of accidents to physical capacities and to psychological test

results.

2. Vehicle – Accident- occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle,

severity, location and extent of damage related to vehicles.

3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to

characteristics of the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of

COLLISION DIAGRAM

These are used to display and identify similar accident

patterns.
• They provide information on the type and number of accidents;
including conditions such as time of day, day of week, climatic
conditions, pavement conditions, and other information critical
to determining the causes of safety problems.
• Accident reports should be organized by year of occurrence and
accident type for the analysis period.
• Accidents that occurred after significant changes in highway or
local land use should not be included.
COLLISION DIAGRAM
How To Draw A Collision Diagram

A. Construction of Collision Diagram

1. Sketch the location diagram for either an intersection or roadway section using a
standard form, The sketch need not be to scale.
2. Show the path of each vehicle involved in the accident with adequate room for
information.
3. Place a north arrow for orientation and any other descriptive information: a.
Location identification b. Period of analysis c. Label the roads
4. Sketch the path of each vehicle to show vehicle maneuver, type of collision and
accident severity, and; a) Time of day b) Day of week c) Date d) Lighting condition
e) Pavement condition f) Other important information, e.g., alcohol involvement
COLLISION DIAGRAM
B. Symbols
Symbols representing the nature of operation, vehicle or object involved and severity
of the accident are adopted. Symbols to represent types of collisions diagrams are
also standardized.
C. Accident Patterns
Accident patterns seen on the collision diagram can often suggest possible accident
problems. For example, a large number of angle accidents would imply the potential
of a sight distance restriction. At the end of this set of notes is a set of Accident
Pattern Tables which identify accident type, possible causes, possible studies to
determine the problem, and possible countermeasures.
COLLISION DIAGRAM: CONVENTIONS
COLLISION DIAGRAM:
Collison diagram - is the schematic representation of all the accidents
occurring at a particular location.
CONDITION DIAGRAM

A condition diagram is a scale

drawing which provides an accurate
picture of the physical conditions
present at the location under study.

From this diagram you can determine--

• The required visibility distance for

the 85th percentile speed on the
road.

• The actual visibility triangle

CONDITION DIAGRAM
 CONDITION DIAGRAM
Condition diagram - The condition diagram is facilitated by the use standard symbols that are
commonly employed

1. Geometrical features of the

location, giving the street
width, shoulder width, corner
radii and curb lines .
2. Property lines
3. Footways and driveways
4. Separate cycle track if any ,
5. Sight obstruction in the
roadway
 CONDITION DIAGRAM

1. Traffic sign, signal and road markings

2. Street lighting
3. Bridges , culverts, over bridges and
underpasses
4. Ditches along the road
TYPES OF BAD ROAD CONDITIONS

1. Potholes: Severe accidents can occur when blacktop or asphalt are missing in large
chunks from the road.

2. Ice patches: Ice patches can form even without rain or snow. They typically form in
isolated areas on the road.

3. Shoulder drop-off: A drop-off region can present a serious danger to drivers.

4. Oil and chip: These are temporary fixes on roads before they are resurfaced. Oil and
chip areas can become slippery when left for extended periods of time.

5. Construction work zones: Lanes-shift and uneven roads are some of the issues
involved in construction areas.

6. Slick roads: Slippery surfaces cause hydroplaning to occur

Bad Road Conditions
 INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS

POOR ENGINEERING MEDIANS

Possible Solution:
Bad Practice:
•Movable concrete
Improper cross – sectional elements
•Too narrow
block and steel rail
•Danger to
barriers
pedestrians
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS
-1
SIDE SLOPE

Bad Practice: Possible Solution:

•Steep side slope •Shallow side
slope
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON
ACCIDENTS -2
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES – RURAL

Bad Practice: No footpath Possible Solution: Benched,

Pedestrians spill onto embankment serves as
roadway footpath
 INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS -3
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES – URBAN

Bad Practice:
•Inadequate footpath
•Pedestrians spill onto roadway Possible Solution:
Wide segregated footpath with
bollards
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS -4
HORIZONTAL CURVES

Bad Practice: Possible Solution:

•Poorly signed and delineated • Low – cost treatment using
curve marking and chevron signs
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS -5
SIGHT DISTANCE

Bad Practice:
•Sharp curve Possible Solution:
•Inadequate sight Good sight distance
distance enhances safety
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS -6
SIGHT DISTANCE ON A CREST

Adequate sight distance to be maintained for safe operation on vertical

and horizontal curves
INFLUENCE OF ROAD AND ITS EFFECTS ON ACCIDENTS -7

Possible Solution:
Bad Practice:
Good combination of curves ensures
Roller coaster curve
proper visibility
 PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
• Skid Resistance
• Light Reflecting Characteristics
PAVEMENT SURFACE

Bad Practice:
Possible Solution:
• Poor maintenance
Improving damaged surfaces
• Damage to vehicles and presents
reduces danger
danger
SKID RESISTANCE AND SURFACE TEXTURE

Good skid resistance texture Skid resistance measurement

enhances using Portable Skid Resistance
safety Tester
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Traffic Volume
 Speed of Vehicles
TRAFFIC VOLUME
 Traffic Operation

Bad Practice: Possible Solution: Planned land use

Uncontrolled land use increases reduces traffic volume
congestion
SPEED OF VEHICLES

Bad Practice: Possible Solution:

• High speed through traffic •Route planning
• No speed restriction •Speed control within urban
limits
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS:

It may be carried out in following three stages:

1) Accident investigation
a) Test on driver
b) Test on vehicle
c) Test on pavement
d) Probable cause of accidents
2) Analysis of individual accidents
3) Statistical analysis of accidents
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS:

Accident investigation: The important objective is to find the primary and

contributing cause of accident, most common is to find whether -
a) The driver involved were under influence of alcohol
b) The vehicle had exceeded the legal speed limit
c) There was any defect in vehicle or brake has failed
d) The vehicle skid due to slippery surface
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS-1:

Test on driver:
 Analysis of breath of driver involved in the accident for alcohol
content using breath analyses or autopsy or postmortem
 Test on drivers such as reaction time, distance judgement etc..
Test on vehicle:
 Condition of brake and steering of vehicle
 Test on brake lights , indicators ,rare view mirror
 Age and general condition of vehicle
 condition of tyre
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS-2:

Test on pavement:
 Average skid resistance of the road surface along the skid marks are to be measured
using skid resistant tester
 Measurement of partial and full skid marks
 Environment and weather condition
2) Analysis of individual traffic accident: Few types of vehicular accidents are
listed under the following categories:
a) A moving vehicle collides with a stationary object which is collapsible ( electric pole )
b) A moving vehicle collided with a stationary object which is rigid structure
c) A moving vehicle collided with a movable object like parked vehicle
d) Two vehicle approaching from different direction collide at an intersection
e) Head on collision of two vehicles approaching from opposite direction
f) Rear end collision of two moving vehicles.
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS-3:

The following assumptions are made in order to simplify the analysis

1) Skid distance are measured to find actual braking distance and it is
assumed 100% skid has occurred
2) When two vehicles collide , it is assumed that both the vehicles are
perfectly plastic bodies and both would move together with same
speed after impact
3) Impact of vehicle may be either direct or oblique at known angle
4) Friction coefficient is assumed to be uniform throughout the skid
distance
STATISTICAL METHOD FOR ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENT DATA:

Accident is caused by variety of factors and analysis of accident data plays a key
role in identifying the cause of accident. Qualitative method of analysis of
accident can provide us insight into the causes that contributes to the accidents
and can help identifying the black spots.
A few statistical methods are currently being applied in accident research.
These includes:
1) Regression method
2) Poisson distribution
3) Use of chi-squared test for comparing accident data
4) Quality control method
STATISTICAL METHODS
Regression method:
• The basic principle behind these methods is that the expected
number of accidents, on a certain road system during a given tie
period, is dependent on a linear way on factors which help in
determine the accident frequency.
• The regression model is of following form may be assumed.

Z=α0+ α1*x1+ α2*x2+α3*x3+ …………... + αn*xn

Where: Z= Accident rate α1, α2, α3 = Regression

coefficient

X , X , X = Independent variable α0 = Regression

POISSON DISTRIBUTION
• One of the commonly used statistical mode for accident analysis is the Poisson distribution.
• Poisson distribution is appropriate for accident study because accidents are governed by the
law of chance and occurrence of accident is a rare event in time or in distance or amongst
the drivers.

P(r) = (mr *e-m ) / r!

Where: P(r) = probability of occurrence of (r ) events .
m = average rate of occurrence of event = np
e = base of natural algorithms
Applying the above formula to determine the probability of a driver causing accident,
Let : N= be the number of drivers,
M= be the kilometer driven by each driver and
P = be the probability of having accidents per kilometer travelled
m = be the average rate of occurrence of accident in a length of travel of M kilometers (m=
Pm),

Then the probability of a driver having (r) accidents

P(r) = (N mr e-m ) / r! Where P value is very small and m value
CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION FOR COMPARING ACCIDENT DATA:
One of the situation a traffic engineer must assess frequently is whether the safety
measures adopted at a particular location or stretch of road have been really effective in
reducing the number of accidents.

Before and after data on accident can be evaluated on statically principal, and on the
handy tool is chi-squared test.

Let (b) be the number of accident before the improvement at a particular location

Let (a) be the number of accident after the improvement

Let C be the number of accident excepted if no improvement had been carried out, the
factor (C) being called the control ratio:

X2 = (a – b*c)2
( a+ b)*c
ECONOMIC
1. EVALUATION
When an accident problem has BY BEFORE
been identified AND
and anAFTER STUDIES
improvement implemented, the
engineer must evaluate whether the remediation has been effective in reducing the number
of accidents.
2. The record of accidents and their location are maintained by means of condition and Collison
diagram.
3. After making the necessary improvement it is necessary to collect and maintain the record
of accident.
4. The length of time considered before and after the improvement must be long enough to
observe changes in accidents occurrence.
5. The length of before and after period must be same
Z1 = fb-fa
6. The normal approximation test is often used to make this determination. The statistical Z 1 is
√fa+fb NOTE: The standard normal distribution table
computed as: is used to find the probability of Z being equal
Where, fa : number of accidents after improvement to or less than Z1. If the probability [Z ≤ Z 1]
fb : number of accidents before improvement ≥ 0.95, the observed reduction in accident is
statistically significant
Z1 : test statistic representing the reduction in accidents on
the standard normal distribution
COUNTER MEASURES AT HAZARDOUS LOCATION
Counter measures for different accident
patterns: Type Causes Counter measures
1. Left turn movement Restricted sight distance Provide left turn signal phase
Amber phase to short Adjust amber
Excessive speed Reduce speed limit
Large turn volume Prohibit turn , add lane
2. Rear end Collison at un- Large turn volume Increase curb radii
signalized intersection Driver unaware of intersection Install or improve warning signs
Slippery surface Provide adequate drainage
Lack of adequate gap Provide traffic signal, stop sign
3. Right angel collision at un- Restricted sight distance Provide adequate channelization
signalized intersection Inadequate roadway lighting Improve roadway lighting
Inadequate roadway intersection warning signs Install or improve warning sign
Inadequate traffic control device Upgrade traffic control device
4. Side swipe or head on Driver unaware of intersection Install and improve warning signs
collision Improper pavement marking Improve pavement marking
Inadequate shoulders Upgrade roadway shoulders
5. Pedestrian and vehicle Inadequate signal timing Retime the signal
Collison Inadequate pedestrian protection Install pedestrian barrier
Scholl crossing area Use crossing gaurs at school
6. Night collision Inadequate sign Upgrade traffic control devices
Inadequate delineators Improve delineators
Poor traffic control device visibility Improve warning signs
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES
• Road safety is result of effective measures and their integration in the
areas of Engineering, Enforcement, Education (EEE”s) Measures
• Engineering measures: Based on analysis of road and traffic related accident
information, which applies engineering principles to identify road design or
traffic management improvements that will reduce the number and severity
of road accidents in the most cost-effective manner.
• Engineering Measures are subdivided into
 Engineering measures on Roads
 Engineering measures on Vehicles
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Engineering measures: Following engineering measures

are to be take
 Road Design
 Traffic Calming Techniques
 Pedestrian Crossings
 Roadside Barriers
 Street Lighting
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Engineering measures:
• Road Design: Ensure roads are ROAD Direction

designed with safety in mind,

including proper signage, clear road
markings, and appropriate lane
widths.
ROAD signs Road Bumps
• Traffic Calming: Implement measures
such as speed bumps, roundabouts,
and chicanes to slow down traffic in
residential areas and high-risk zones.
ROAD markings Roundabout
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Engineering measures:
• Pedestrian Crossings: Design and maintain Pedestrian crossing

safe pedestrian crossings, including

crosswalks, pedestrian signals, and refuge
islands.
• Roadside Barriers: Install barriers and ROAD barrier
guardrails to prevent vehicles from leaving
the road and protect pedestrians and
cyclists.
• Street Lighting: Proper illumination of
roads and intersections to enhance Streetlight
ROAD SAFETY
MEASURES
Engineering measures:
• Engineering measures on Vehicles
• Engineering road safety measures
implemented on vehicles aim to
enhance safety for occupants,
pedestrians, and other road users.
ROAD SAFETY
MEASURES
Following Technologies incorporated in Vehicles:

1. Airbags

2. Antilock brake system

3. Advanced driver assistance systems

(ADAS)

4. Traction Control System (TCS)

5. Lane-Keeping Assist

6. Tyre Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS)

7. Automatic Emergency Call Systems

ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Enforcement Measures:
1) Speed Limits
2) Deploy the Traffic Police
3) Surveillance Cameras
4) Drunk driving or driving under the influence (DUI)
5) Seat Belt Enforcement
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Enforcement Measures:
o Speed Limits: Enforce and regularly review speed limits based on road
conditions to discourage speeding.
o Traffic Police: Increase the presence of traffic police to monitor and enforce
traffic rules, especially at high-risk locations.
o Surveillance Cameras: Use technology such as speed cameras, red-light
cameras, and surveillance cameras to monitor and deter traffic violations.
o Drunk driving or driving under the influence (DUI): Conduct regular checks
for driving under the influence (DUI) to discourage impaired driving.
o Seat Belt Enforcement: Strict enforcement of seat belt laws to promote
occupant safety.
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES
Education Measures:
1) Public Awareness Campaigns
2) Driver Education Programs
3) Road safety awareness programs at School
4) Community Engagement
5) Workplace Safety Programs
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES

Education Measures:
1. Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch campaigns to educate the public about the
importance of road safety and the consequences of reckless behavior.
2. Driver Education Programs: Implement mandatory driver education programs to
ensure that new drivers are aware of traffic rules and safe driving practices.
3. School Programs: Integrate road safety education into school curricula to instill safe
habits from a young age.
4. Community Engagement: Foster community involvement in road safety initiatives,
encouraging citizens to actively participate in promoting safe behavior.
5. Workplace Safety Programs: Promote road safety in workplaces, especially for
jobs that involve driving, through training programs and awareness campaigns.
EDUCATION MEASURES

By promoting road safety awareness to public

 Conducted at school level , college level,
 Created awareness to the public through Media.etc
EDUCATION MEASURES
 Public participation is crucial for the success of the National Road Safety Policy.
Individuals can contribute by following traffic rules,
 By promoting road safety awareness in their communities,
 By reporting road hazards and practicing responsible road behavior.
BOOKS AND REFERENCES
TEXT BOOK:
1. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning – L.R. Kadiyali,
Khanna Publishers.
2. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering - C.S. Papacostas,
Prentice Hall India.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Handbook of Road Safety measures, second Edition, Rune Elvik,
Alena Hoye, Truls Vaa, Michael Sorenson.

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