CHAPTER -
Processor
Processor
A processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that
resides in computers and other electronic devices. Its
basic job is to receive input and provide the appropriate
output. While this may seem like a simple task, modern
processors can handle trillions (10 12) of calculations per
second.
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Microprocessors Characteristics
Microprocessors are multipurpose devices that can be
designed for generic or specialized functions. The
microprocessors of laptops and smartphones are general
purpose whereas ones designed for graphical processing
or machine vision are specialized ones. There are some
characteristics that are common to all microprocessors.
These are the most important defining characteristics of a
microprocessor −
1. Clock speed
2. Instruction set
3. Word size
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Clock Speed
Clock Speed
Clock speed is the rate at which a processor can complete
a processing cycle. The faster the clock speed is, the
faster each core can run.
It is typically measured in megahertz or gigahertz.
One megahertz is equal to one million (1,000,000 or
106 or 10 lakhs) cycles per second, while one gigahertz
equals one billion (1,000,000,000 or 109 or one thousand
million or 10,000 lakhs ) cycles per second.
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Cont.
In general, a higher clock speed means a faster CPU.
However, many other factors come into play.
Sometimes, multiple instructions are completed in a
single clock cycle; in other cases, one instruction might
be handled over multiple clock cycles.
Since different CPU designs handle instructions
differently, it’s best to compare clock speeds within the
same CPU brand and generation.
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Cont.
The higher the clock speed a CPU has, the faster it can process
instructions.
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How do I choose between more processor cores
or a higher clock speed?
Both processor cores and clock speed are essential to operating your
computer. Buying a computer with multiple cores and a super high
clock speed sounds ideal - but what does this all really mean for
functionality in your computer?
Basically, having a high clock speed but just one or two cores
means your computer will be able to load and interact with a single
application quickly.
Conversely, having more processor cores, but a slower clock
speed means your computer can work with more applications at a
time, but each may run a little slower.
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Instruction Set
A command given to a digital machine to perform an operation on a piece of
data is called an instruction. Basic set of machine level instructions that a
microprocessor is designed to execute is called its instruction set.
The 8086 microprocessor supports 8 types of instructions −
1. Data Transfer Instructions
2. Arithmetic Instructions
3. Bit Manipulation Instructions
4. String Instructions
5. Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch & Loop Instructions)
6. Processor Control Instructions
7. Iteration Control Instructions
8. Interrupt Instructions
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Word Size
Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in a
single instruction is called its word size.
Word "size" refers to the amount of data a CPU's
internal data registers can hold and process at one time.
Modern desktop computers have 64-bit words.
Computers embedded in appliances and consumer
products have word sizes of 8, 16 or 32 bits.
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Bus
A bus is a set of wires that is used to connect the different
internal components of the computer system for the purpose
of transferring data as well addresses amongst them.
Each bus has a certain size, measured in bits (such as 32-bit
or 64-bit), that determines how much data can travel across
the bus at one time. Buses also have a certain speed,
measured in megahertz, which determines how fast the data
can travel.
There are three types of BUS.
(1). Data Bus
(2). Address Bus
(3). Control Bus 10
Data Bus
Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to
transfer data between different components of
computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the
speed of data transfer between different components. The
data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 lines. A 64-line data
bus can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.
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Address Bus
Many components are connected to one another
through buses. Each component is assigned a unique
ID. This ID is called the address of that component.
If a component wants to communicate with another
component, it uses address bus to specify the address
of that component.
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Control Bus
Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control
signals from one component to another component. Suppose
CPU wants to read data from main memory. It will use control is
also used to transmit control signals like ASKS
(Acknowledgement signals).
Suppose that CPU gives a command to the main memory to
write data. The memory sends acknowledgement signal to CPU
after writing the data successfully. CPU receives the signal and
then moves to perform some other action.
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Core
In relation to computer processors, a core is the
processing unit that receives instructions and performs
calculations, or actions, based on those instructions. A set
of instructions can allow a software program perform a
specific function.
Processors can have a single core or multiple cores. A
processor with two cores is called a dual-core processor
and four cores is called a quad-core processor. Processors
for home computers can even have six or eight cores. The
more cores a processor has, the more sets of instructions
the processor can receive and process at the same time,
which makes the computer faster. 14
Cont.
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Manufacture Computer
There are two primary manufacturers of computer microprocessors.
(1). Intel
(2). Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
Both lead the market in terms of speed and quality.
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Dual-core
When referring to computer processors, dual-core is a
technology that enables two complete processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. This gives the
user virtually twice as much power in a single chip. For
the computer to take full advantage of dual-core, it must
be running on an operating system that supports TLP
(Thread-Level Parallelism) and for applications to
support TLP.
** TLP is a software that allows high-end programs, such as a
database or web application, to work with multiple threads at
the same time.
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Quad-core
When referring to computer processors, quad-core is a
technology that enables four complete processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. Having this
many cores give the user virtually four times as much
power in a single chip. For the computer to take full
advantage of quad-core, it must be running on an
operating system that supports TLP and for applications
to support TLP.
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Core 2 duo
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Check computer propertise
Process-1: Type system in the search box, and then click System.
Or
Control Panel System
Process-2: Windows + r =run and type msinfo32
Process-3: My Computer (Write click) Properties.
Process-4: Windows + r =run and type dxdiag
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How to Decode your Intel Laptop Processor
name
When you look at an Intel CPU name, you might see something
like Intel Core i7-6700K. What does this mean?
There are four components:
(1). Brand
(2). Brand Identifier/Modifier
(3). Generation Indicator and SKU-Numeric Digits
(4). Product Line Suffix 21
Cont.
(1). Brand:
Intel Core the brand name for Intel’s consumer CPUs.
The overall product line, such as Core, Pentium, or Celeron.
(2). Brand Identifier/Modifier
In current Intel consumer computers, this will be either i3, i5,
i7 or i9.
Generally speaking, the higher the digit the more features the
CPU will have, but that doesn’t mean an i7 is always
preferable to an i3.
If you’re doing mostly word processing and data entry, an i3
may be all you need, but if you’re doing advanced video
editing, you’re more likely to need an i7.
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Cont.
(3). Generation Indicator and SKU-Numeric Digits
This is a four digit number for all except the Core M CPUs.
The first digit is the Generation Indicator is a number is 2, 3, 4…
11… that tells you which generation CPU this is:
2: second generation
3: third generation
4: fourth generation
5: fifth generation
6: sixth generation
------------------------
N: Nth generation
For Core M CPUs, the generation digit is followed by the letter ‘Y’
and then a two digit code indicating the relative processor23speed.
Cont.
For all other lap CPUs, the other three digits are the
SKU-Numeric Digits. They tell you how powerful
(performance) a particular CPU is relative to other CPUs
in the same CPU family. It doesn’t tell you any specific
data about the CPU only that, for example, an Intel Core
i7 6820K is faster than an Intel Core i7-6700K.
Some examples of Generation Indicator and SKU-
Numeric Digits for actual CPU’s”
i3-3240 (third generation)
i7-4980 (fourth generation)
i7-6700 (sixth generation )
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Cont.
(4). Product Line Suffix
This one or two letter code indicates further information about the processor
such as whether it’s unlocked or optimized in various ways. An unlocked
processor is one that the user can make run faster than factory specifications; it’s
not recommended for most users.
The code can vary between generations:
H: High performance graphics (Generation 5, 6)
HK: High performance graphics, unlocked (Generation 6)
HQ: High performance graphics, quad core (Generation 4, 5, 6)
M: Mobile (Generation 2, 3, 4)
MQ: Quad core mobile (Generation 4)
MX: Mobile extreme edition (Generation 4)
QM: Quad core mobile (Generation 2, 3)
U: Ultra low power (Generation 3, 4, 5, 6)
Y: Extremely low power (Generation 3, 4) 25
Cont.
Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-2410M CPU @ 2.30GHz
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8th Generation:
Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9
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8th Generation:
Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9
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8th Generation:
Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9
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8th Generation:
Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9
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Core i9
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32-bit and 64-bit processor
32-bit is a type of CPU architecture that is capable of
transferring 32 bits of data per clock cycle.
You can think this architecture as a road that's 32 lanes wide;
only 32 "vehicles" (bits of data) can go through an
intersection at a time.
In more technical terms, this means processors can work
with 32-bit binary numbers (decimal number up to 232 -1=
4,294,967,295).
Anything larger and the computer would need to break the
data into smaller pieces.
Examples
Motorola 68020 and Intel 80386.
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Cont.
64-bit is a CPU architecture that is capable of transferring 64-bits
of data per clock cycle.
You can think this architecture as a road that's 64 lanes wide; only
64 "vehicles" (bits of data) can go through an intersection at a time.
In more technical terms, this means processors can work with
64-bit binary numbers (decimal number up to 264 -1=
1.844674407371 x 10^19).
Examples
•Intel Pentium dual-core, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 processors.
•AMD Opteron, Athlon 64, Turion 64, Sempron, Phenom, FX, and
Fusion.
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Difference between 32 bit 64 bit processor
H.W 34
Cont.
Compatibility of 32 bit CPU:
Processor (CPU) 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit
Operating System (OS) 32-bit 32-bit 64-bit 64-bit
Application Program 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 64-bit
Yes No No No
Compatibility of 64 bit CPU:
Processor (CPU) 64-bit 64-bit 64-bit 64-bit
Operating System (OS) 64-bit 64-bit 32-bit 32-bit
Application Program 64-bit 32-bit 32-bit 64-bit
Yes Yes Yes No
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Hyper-Threading
Hyper-Threading is Intel's technology for creating two
logical cores in each physical core. In other words, to
your operating system it appears as though your CPU
has double the number of cores than it really does.
In terms of performance, Hyper-Threading speeds up
multi-tasking and multi-threaded applications. It's not
as fast or as efficient as extra 'real' cores, but it's an
improvement over a single Core.
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Cont.
37
Cont.
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Turbo Boost
CPU run at its base clock speed when handling light workloads.
Intel Turbo Boost Technology accelerates processor and
graphics performance for peak loads, automatically allowing
processor cores to run faster than its specific or configured
processing speed/limit.
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Processor
Note, do not get confused by the field marked as “Threads” (which
in this case is 2208). This basically shows the amount of program
threads or codes running at the moment. It has nothing to do with
the amount of threads on your CPU has!
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Processor
Physical core= socket × Core(s) per socket
Logical core/processor= Physical cores × thread(s) per
core
A CPU with two physical cores is called a dual-core
processor and four physical cores is called a quad-core
processor.
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CPU socket
A CPU socket is also known as a CPU slot.
A CPU socket is a specific part on a motherboard that is
purposely designed to hold a central processing unit
(CPU). A CPU socket or CPU slot is designed with
thousands of pins or contact points for power and data
transfer between the CPU and the rest of the processors
on the motherboard.
Most of the commercial motherboard comes with only
one CPU socket and some products may have dual-CPU
sockets on a single motherboard. Dual-CPU sockets may
sound intriguing, with the ability to instantly double the
performance of the system. 42
Types of microprocessor
A microprocessor can be classified into three categories −
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Special Processors
These are the processors which are designed for some special
purposes. Few of the special processors are briefly discussed
Coprocessor:
A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can
handle its particular function many times faster than the
ordinary microprocessor.
For example − Math Coprocessor.
Some Intel math-coprocessors are −
•8087-used with 8086
•80287-used with 80286
•80387-used with 80386
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RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
It is designed to reduce the execution time by
simplifying the instruction set of the computer.
Using RISC processors, each instruction requires only
one clock cycle to execute results in uniform execution
time.
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Architecture of RISC
RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set of
instructions. It is used in portable devices like Apple iPod due to its
power efficiency.
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Characteristics of RISC
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows
It consists of simple instructions.
It supports various data-type formats.
It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length
instructions for pipelining.
It supports register to use in any context.
One cycle execution time.
“LOAD” and “STORE” instructions are used to access the
memory location.
It consists of larger number of registers.
It consists of less number of transistors.
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CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer.
It is designed to minimize the number of instructions
per program, ignoring the number of cycles per
instruction.
The emphasis is on building complex instructions
directly into the hardware.
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Architecture of CISC
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost because
more storage is needed in larger programs resulting in higher
memory cost. To resolve this, the number of instructions per
program can be reduced by embedding the number of operations in a
single instruction.
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Characteristics of RISC
Variety of addressing modes.
Larger number of instructions.
Variable length of instruction formats.
Several cycles may be required to execute one
instruction.
Instruction-decoding logic is complex.
One instruction is required to support multiple
addressing modes.
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Difference between RISC and CISC Processor
H.W 51
