Computer Network

Computer Network Tutorial

Computer Network tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Data Communication & Networks (DCN). Our Computer Networking Tutorial is
designed for beginners and professionals.
Our Computer Network tutorial includes all topics of Computer Network such as introduction, features, types of computer network, architecture,
hardware, software, internet, intranet, website, LAN, WAN, etc.

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving
the data. The links connecting the nodes are known as communication channels.
Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task,
each separate computer handles a subset.

Following are the advantages of Distributed processing:

o Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with the entire system. For example, a bank allows the users to access their
own accounts through an ATM without allowing them to access the bank's entire database.
o Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone.
o Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the same program at the same time can provide the security through
redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program and any computer has a hardware error, then other computers can
override it.

Computer Network Components

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some important network components
are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be
removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.
Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC
o NIC stands for network interface card.
o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely.
The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
1. Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.
2. Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains
the wireless NIC.

Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer requests for some information from a
network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether
the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is
replaced by more advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch
contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the
physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the
device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination.
It increases the speed of the network.
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Router
o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the
incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages Of Router:
o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but the only specified device which has been
addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same
amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each,
reduces the traffic load by half.
o Network range

Modem
o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following categories:
o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem
o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:
o Twisted pair cable
o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share their
resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
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PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi,
Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person.
Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home network. A home network is designed to
integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate network using a VPN

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
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Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting
their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone
leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a
different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect
with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up
servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within
seconds.
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o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype
allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases
the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are
combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers,
so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer network segments are connected
using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer networks can also be defined
as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol.
It is used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level
of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An
intranet belongs to an organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the organization can communicate with another employee
through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The information is distributed among the employees
of the organization and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This
leads to a reduction in the cost.

Data Link Layer

o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from the bottom.
o The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links, and in order to move the datagram from
source to the destination, the datagram must be moved across an individual link.
o The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across an individual link.
o The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error
detection, retransmission, flow control, and random access.
o The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
o An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be handled by different link layer protocols on different
links in a path. For example, the datagram is handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the second link.
Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:
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o Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network frame within a Link layer frame before the
transmission across the link. A frame consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is inserted and a number of data
fields. It specifies the structure of the frame as well as a channel access protocol by which frame is to be transmitted over the
link.
o Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e., transmits the network layer datagram without any
error. A reliable delivery service is accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements. A data link layer mainly provides
the reliable delivery service over the links as they have higher error rates and they can be corrected locally, link at which an
error occurs rather than forcing to retransmit the data.
o Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it can process the frame. Without flow control, the
receiver's buffer can overflow, and frames can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data link layer uses the flow control to
prevent the sending node on one side of the link from overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.
o Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise. Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to
detect one or more errors. This is achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can perform an
error check.
o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that receiving node not only detect the errors but
also determine where the errors have occurred in the frame.
o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex
mode, only one node can transmit the data at the same time.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other. There are two types of
topology: physical and logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus
Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
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1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a backbone
cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the stations available in the
network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets
do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the
messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once the collision is
detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision by checking whether the
transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique
effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10
Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques are
well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in
the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with
each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the
signal.
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2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable,
then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.
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3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central
computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology,
the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized
network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the
star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect
the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology
networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be able to
communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.
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4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent
over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which can be easily
managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each other
through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
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o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers available in the
network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected to those computers
with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the communication
between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more transmission
media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is
not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
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6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are
connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the functionality of
the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the network is
maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult
to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs
used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network
devices, etc.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network
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Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for
processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer
with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the
data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources such as songs,
video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then
it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2.
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Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for implementing the software for such
subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant software was
very difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered approach,
networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking
tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage communications and run the
applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer without defining how the
services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network. However, the purpose of each layer
is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity. These rules mainly
concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another machine and the rules
used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.
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o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each
layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered architecture provides a clean-cut
interface so that minimum information is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer
can be easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.
Why do we require Layered architecture?
o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such a way that the unmanageable
tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the
design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of layers, which is easier to
understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can be changed without affecting
other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.

What is OSI model?

The OSI stands for Open System Interconnection, which was developed in 1980s. It is a conceptual model used for network
communication. It is not implemented entirely, but it is still referenced today. This OSI model consists of seven layers, and each layer is
connected to each other. The data moves down the OSI model, and each layer adds additional information. The data moves down until
it reaches the last layer of the OSI model. When the data is received at the last layer of the OSI model, then the data is transmitted over
the network. Once the data is reached on the other side, then the process will get reversed.

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a software application
in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the physical layer are
implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
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7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
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o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two
devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the
header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination address. The frame is
transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique through which the constant data
rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server
with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data
link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then the data link layer
protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
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3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify
the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple
paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into packets. This process is known
as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
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4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between source and destination to
deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each
segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission
control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment when the packet is
received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from
source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility
of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the message
into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When
the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and connectionless service. A
connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single
link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across
the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.
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5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it
allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two
systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings, numbers and so on.
Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the
different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
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o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the sender-transmitted information
into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted.
Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to
retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide that global information
about various objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to
the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

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Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping
of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the destination
irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the
internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures
that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as
Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the
datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When
source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
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o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the request, but only
recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of some
unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform
the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The responsibility of the correction
lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the
addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been
damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the
segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual
circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment contains
a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
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o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its data to the
transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the application layer except
those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while
web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the world wide web. It
transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the devices on the
internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail
transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely.
But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known
as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local computer and remote
computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer
to another computer.

Switching
o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their immediate location, messages are sent through
the network of transmission media. This technique of transferring the information from one computer network to another
network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a small hardware device which is used to join
multiple computers together with one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in the home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It verifies the destination address to route the
packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
Rise of Switching: From Hubs to Switches
As computer networks evolved and the need for high-quality communication expanded, the restrictions of hub-based networks have
grown to be obvious. This is about the evolution of network switching, with switches replacing hubs because they are the principal
connecting devices. Network switches perform on Layer 2 of the OSI version, facilitating more efficient and selective data transmission.
Unlike hubs, switches use MAC addresses to provide information only to the particular device they are meant for, decreasing needless
community congestion and enhancing average overall performance.

Types of Network Switching

A multifaceted approach to network switching has developed into numerous types, each catering to specific requirements and
conditions.
The primary kinds are discussed below:
Circuit Switching: In traditional smartphone networks, circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication route amongst devices
during their verbal exchange. While effective, it has boundaries in terms of scalability and overall performance.
Packet Switching: Packet switching, in contrast to circuit switching, breaks down records into packets, which might be transmitted
independently across the network. This method, employed via the internet, allows for greater, inexperienced use of bandwidth and
superior scalability.
 Computer Network

Message Switching: Message switching includes the whole message being sent from delivery to destination. In current computer
networks, it changed into an early form of data transmission.
Virtual Circuit Switching: Combining factors of both circuit and packet switching, digital circuit switching establishes a dedicated path in
the path of a conversation consultation, just like circuit switching; however, it makes use of packet-like transmission to maintain overall
performance.

Ethernet Switching: Ethernet switching has come to be the fundamental form of community switching in local location networks
(LANs). It operates at Layer 2 of the OSI version. The usage of MAC addresses beforehand the facts simplest to the supposed recipient.
Why is Switching Concept required?
Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:
o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very critical and expensive resource. Therefore,
switching techniques are used for the effective utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device transmits the message over the same physical media,
and they collide with each other. To overcome this problem, switching technology is implemented so that packets do not
collide with each other.
Advantages of Switching:
o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.
o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:
o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.
o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast packets.
Challenges and Future Trends
While community switching has come in a protracted manner, it continues to present demanding situations and opportunities for
development. Some key concerns and future developments consist of the following:
Security Concerns: As networks become more interconnected, safety threats also evolve. Switches play an important role in network
protection, and improvements in encryption, access management, and risk detection are crucial for safeguarding sensitive information.
5G Integration: The creation of 5G technology introduces new opportunities and demanding situations for network switching. The
prolonged pace and functionality demand switching infrastructures to help the growing extensive sort of related gadgets and packages.
Edge Computing: The upward push of edge computing, wherein processing happens in the direction of the flow of technology, needs
network switching capable of managing allotted and decentralized architectures correctly.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Integration: Integrating AI network switches can beautify automation, predictive protection, and adaptive
community optimization. Machine-learning algorithms can analyze community traffic patterns to anticipate and prevent functionality
issues.
Quantum Networking: With the exploration of quantum computing and verbal exchange, the panorama of network switching might
also witness revolutionary adjustments. Quantum switches, harnessing the concepts of quantum entanglement, must redefine the way
information is transmitted.

Switching Modes
o The layer 2 switches are used for transmitting the data on the data link layer, and it also performs error checking on
transmitted and received frames.
o The layer 2 switches forward the packets with the help of MAC address.
o Different modes are used for forwarding the packets known as Switching modes.
o In switching mode, Different parts of a frame are recognized. The frame consists of several parts such as preamble, destination
MAC address, source MAC address, user's data, FCS.
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There are three types of switching modes:

o Store-and-forward
o Cut-through
o Fragment-free

Store-and-forward

o Store-and-forward is a technique in which the intermediate nodes store the received frame and then check for errors before
forwarding the packets to the next node.
o The layer 2 switch waits until the entire frame has received. On receiving the entire frame, switch store the frame into the
switch buffer memory. This process is known as storing the frame.
o When the frame is stored, then the frame is checked for the errors. If any error found, the message is discarded otherwise the
message is forwarded to the next node. This process is known as forwarding the frame.
o CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) technique is implemented that uses a number of bits to check for the errors on the received
frame.
o The store-and-forward technique ensures a high level of security as the destination network will not be affected by the
corrupted frames.
o Store-and-forward switches are highly reliable as it does not forward the collided frames.

Cut-through Switching
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o Cut-through switching is a technique in which the switch forwards the packets after the destination address has been
identified without waiting for the entire frame to be received.
o Once the frame is received, it checks the first six bytes of the frame following the preamble, the switch checks the destination
in the switching table to determine the outgoing interface port, and forwards the frame to the destination.
o It has low latency rate as the switch does not wait for the entire frame to be received before sending the packets to the
destination.
o It has no error checking technique. Therefore, the errors can be sent with or without errors to the receiver.
o A Cut-through switching technique has low wait time as it forwards the packets as soon as it identifies the destination MAC
address.
o In this technique, collision is not detected, if frames have collided will also be forwarded.

Fragment-free Switching

o A Fragment-free switching is an advanced technique of the Cut-through Switching.

o A Fragment-free switching is a technique that reads atleast 64 bytes of a frame before forwarding to the next node to provide
the error-free transmission.
o It combines the speed of Cut-through Switching with the error checking functionality.
o This technique checks the 64 bytes of the ethernet frame where addressing information is available.
o A collision is detected within 64 bytes of the frame, the frames which are collided will not be forwarded further.

Differences b/w Store-and-forward and Cut-through Switching.

Store-and-forward Switching Cut-through Switching

Cut-through Switching is a technique that checks the

Store-and-forward Switching is a technique that
first 6 bytes following the preamble to identify the
waits until the entire frame is received.
destination address.
 Computer Network

It performs error checking functionality. If any error

It does not perform any error checking. The frame
is found in the frame, the frame will be discarded
with or without errors will be forwarded.
otherwise forwarded to the next node.

It has high latency rate as it waits for the entire

It has low latency rate as it checks only six bytes of the
frame to be received before forwarding to the next
frame to determine the destination address.
node.

It is highly reliable as it forwards only error-free It is less reliable as compared to Store-and-forward

packets. technique as it forwards error prone packets as well.

It has a high wait time as it waits for the entire

It has low wait time as cut-through switches do not
frame to be received before taking any forwarding
store the whole frame or packets.
decisions.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for data
transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the
connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the
receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect
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Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by
using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor
gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has n2 intersection points
known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch.
The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and routed through
intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.
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o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of network is known as store
and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the messages until the message is
forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and
they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the
receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each
packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
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o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward the packets. Node does not take any routing decision.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets travel in Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
different directions. it does not allow other packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are treated as an

It is not very flexible.
independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary storage to store the
packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides
reliable communication.
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o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to the transmission, and
many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very
efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The process of combining the
data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal
into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a way that each signal is given
some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the
10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such
collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite signal.
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o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and
transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided
into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels, and each frequency channel
is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer
to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels and allocate them to
different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and then combined to form a
composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
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Advantages Of FDM:
o FDM is used for analog signals.
o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:
o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a
composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
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o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.

o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a composite signal, and the composite
signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different frequency, but in case of Time
Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed among different users.
Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the
sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one
or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not
have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

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In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are
transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is having no data. In the above
figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the
capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to
the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are
allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame that contains only data with
no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but
in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity
of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending
devices, then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are
only transmitted through the transmission line.
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Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.

Data Link Controls

Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to provide reliable data transfer over the physical medium.
For example, In the half-duplex transmission mode, one device can only transmit the data at a time. If both the devices at the
end of the links transmit the data simultaneously, they will collide and leads to the loss of the information. The Data link layer
provides the coordination among the devices so that no collision occurs.
The Data link layer provides three functions:
o Line discipline
o Flow Control
o Error Control

Line Discipline
o Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the coordination among the link systems. It
determines which device can send, and when it can send the data.
Line Discipline can be achieved in two ways:
o ENQ/ACK
o Poll/select
END/ACK
END/ACK stands for Enquiry/Acknowledgement is used when there is no wrong receiver available on the link and having a
dedicated path between the two devices so that the device capable of receiving the transmission is the intended one.

END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission and whether the recipient is ready or not.
Working of END/ACK
The transmitter transmits the frame called an Enquiry (ENQ) asking whether the receiver is available to receive the data or
not.

The receiver responses either with the positive acknowledgement(ACK) or with the negative acknowledgement(NACK)
where positive acknowledgement means that the receiver is ready to receive the transmission and negative
acknowledgement means that the receiver is unable to accept the transmission.
Following are the responses of the receiver:
o If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and once all of its data has been transmitted,
the device finishes its transmission with an EOT (END-of-Transmission) frame.
o If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and restarts the transmission at another time.
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o If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the ENQ frame was lost during the
transmission and makes three attempts to establish a link before giving up.

Poll/Select
The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies where one device is designated as a primary station,
and other devices are secondary stations.
Working of Poll/Select
o In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single transmission line, and all the
exchanges are made through the primary device even though the destination is a secondary device.
o The primary device has control over the communication link, and the secondary device follows the instructions of the
primary device.
o The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the communication channel. Therefore, we can say
that it is an initiator of the session.
o If the primary device wants to receive the data from the secondary device, it asks the secondary device that they
anything to send, this process is known as polling.
o If the primary device wants to send some data to the secondary device, then it tells the target secondary to get ready
to receive the data, this process is known as selecting.
Select
o The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
o When the primary device wants to send some data, then it alerts the secondary device for the upcoming
transmission by transmitting a Select (SEL) frame, one field of the frame includes the address of the intended
secondary device.
o When the secondary device receives the SEL frame, it sends an acknowledgement that indicates the secondary
ready status.
o If the secondary device is ready to accept the data, then the primary device sends two or more data frames to the
intended secondary device. Once the data has been transmitted, the secondary sends an acknowledgement
specifies that the data has been received.
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Poll
o The Poll mode is used when the primary device wants to receive some data from the secondary device.
o When a primary device wants to receive the data, then it asks each device whether it has anything to send.
o Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the first secondary device, if it responds with the NACK (Negative Acknowledgement)
means that it has nothing to send. Now, it approaches the second secondary device, it responds with the ACK
means that it has the data to send. The secondary device can send more than one frame one after another or
sometimes it may be required to send ACK before sending each one, depending on the type of the protocol being
used.

Flow Control

o It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before the data overwhelms the receiver.
o The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data. Therefore, the receiving device must
be able to inform the sending device to stop the transmission temporarily before the limits are reached.
o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they are processed.
Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:

o Stop-and-wait
o Sliding window
Stop-and-wait
o In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after every frame it sends.
o When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The process of alternately sending and waiting of
a frame continues until the sender transmits the EOT (End of transmission) frame.
Advantage of Stop-and-wait

The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged before the next frame is sent.

Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait

Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the way to the receiver, and an
acknowledgement travels all the way before the next frame is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the entire time
needed to traverse the link.

Sliding Window

o The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can transmit the several frames before getting an
acknowledgement.
o In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the another due to which capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
o A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
o Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
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o The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit on the number of frames that can be
transmitted before the acknowledgement.
o Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.
o The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means that they are numbered from 0 to n-
1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
o The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames can be sent before
acknowledgement.
o When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame that it wants to receive. For example, to
acknowledge the string of frames ending with frame number 4, the receiver will send the ACK containing the number
5. When the sender sees the ACK with the number 5, it got to know that the frames from 0 through 4 have been
received.

Sender Window

At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames, and when they are sent out, the left boundary
moves inward shrinking the size of the window. For example, if the size of the window is w if three frames are sent out, then
the number of frames left out in the sender window is w-3.

o Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number which will be equal to the number of
frames acknowledged by ACK.
o For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have been sent out and no acknowledgement
has arrived, then the sender window contains only two frames, i.e., 5 and 6. Now, if ACK has arrived with a number
4 which means that 0 through 3 frames have arrived undamaged and the sender window is expanded to include the
next four frames. Therefore, the sender window contains six frames (5,6,7,0,1,2).

Receiver Window
o At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n frames, but it contains n-1 spaces for
frames.
o When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
o The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but it represents the number of frames that
can be received before an ACK is sent. For example, the size of the window is w, if three frames are received then
the number of spaces available in the window is (w-3).
o Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the number equal to the number of frames
acknowledged.
o Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window contains seven spaces for seven frames. If the
one frame is received, then the receiver window shrinks and moving the boundary from 0 to 1. In this way, window
shrinks one by one, so window now contains the six spaces. If frames from 0 through 4 have sent, then the window
contains two spaces before an acknowledgement is sent.
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Error Control

Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.

Categories of Error Control:

Stop-and-wait ARQ
Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or lost frames.
This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next frame until it receives the acknowledgement of
the last transmitted frame.
Four features are required for the retransmission:
o The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the acknowledgement is received. Keeping the
copy allows the sender to retransmit the data if the frame is not received correctly.
o Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so that they can be identified
individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the data 0 frame means that the data 0 frame has been arrived
correctly and expects to receive data 1 frame.
o If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK frame which is not numbered. On
receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits the data.
o It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the allotted time, then the sender assumes that
the frame is lost during the transmission, so it will retransmit the frame.
Two possibilities of the retransmission:
o Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the frame contains an error, then it returns the
NAK frame. For example, when the data 0 frame is sent, and then the receiver sends the ACK 1 frame means that
the data 0 has arrived correctly, and transmits the data 1 frame. The sender transmits the next frame: data 1. It
reaches undamaged, and the receiver returns ACK 0. The sender transmits the next frame: data 0. The receiver
reports an error and returns the NAK frame. The sender retransmits the data 0 frame.
o Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame is transmitted. Sometimes the frame has
not arrived at the receiving end so that it can be acknowledged neither positively nor negatively. The sender waits for
acknowledgement until the timer goes off. If the timer goes off, it retransmits the last transmitted frame.

Sliding Window ARQ

SlidingWindow ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission error control.
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Three Features used for retransmission:
o In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until they have been acknowledged. Suppose
the frames from 0 through 4 have been transmitted, and the last acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender has
to keep the copies of frames 3 and 4 until they receive correctly.
o The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The NAK frame tells the sender that the data
have been received damaged. Since the sliding window is a continuous transmission mechanism, both ACK and
NAK must be numbered for the identification of a frame. The ACK frame consists of a number that represents the
next frame which the receiver expects to receive. The NAK frame consists of a number that represents the damaged
frame.
o The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost acknowledgements. Suppose then n-1 frames
have been sent before receiving any acknowledgement. The sender waits for the acknowledgement, so it starts the
timer and waits before sending any more. If the allotted time runs out, the sender retransmits one or all the frames
depending upon the protocol used.
Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:
o Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged, then it retransmits all the frames
after which it does not receive the positive ACK.
Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:
o Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a NAK frame.

In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered in the third frame. In this case, ACK 2
has been returned telling that the frames 0,1 have been received successfully without any error. The receiver discovers the
error in data 2 frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The frame 3 is also discarded as it is transmitted after the damaged
frame. Therefore, the sender retransmits the frames 2,3.
o Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent sequentially. If any of the frames is lost, then
the next frame arrive at the receiver is out of sequence. The receiver checks the sequence number of each of the
frame, discovers the frame that has been skipped, and returns the NAK for the missing frame. The sending device
retransmits the frame indicated by NAK as well as the frames transmitted after the lost frame.
o Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many frames as the windows allow before waiting for any
acknowledgement. Once the limit of the window is reached, the sender has no more frames to send; it must wait for
the acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is lost, then the sender could wait forever. To avoid such situation,
the sender is equipped with the timer that starts counting whenever the window capacity is reached. If the
acknowledgement has not been received within the time limit, then the sender retransmits the frame since the last
ACK.
Selective-Reject ARQ
o Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.
o In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative acknowledgement (NAK) has been
received.
o The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the frame in error is correctly received.
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o The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a correct order.
o The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the requested frame for retransmission.

Ipv4 Headers

Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, is a basic communication protocol that makes data transfer between networked
devices easier. The IPv4 header, a vital component that encapsulates critical information for routing and delivery, is at the
centre of IPv4 communication. The source and destination IP addresses, protocol version, time-to-live (TTL), and checksum
are among the numerous fields that make up the IPv4 header. To ensure correct routing and delivery of data packets to
their intended destination, these fields are essential for directing them through the network of routers. The IPv4 header, a
crucial component of the packet structure, acts as a road map for dependable and effective data transfer, facilitating the
smooth operation of the international Internet.
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The informational blueprint guiding the transmission of data packets across networks is contained in IPv4 headers. The IPv4
header, consisting of several fields, contains information essential for routing and delivery. The source and destination IP
addresses, which specify the start and finish of the data transfer, are two of its essential parts. Furthermore, the time-to-
live (TTL) field helps prevent infinite loops by establishing a limit on the packet's lifespan, and the protocol version field
identifies the version of the Internet Protocol that is currently in use. The checksum verifies that the data received has not
been tampered with during transmission, ensuring the integrity of the header. The IPv4 header facilitates data packet
navigation through the complex network infrastructure by giving these necessary parameters, guaranteeing accurate,
efficient, and secure communication between devices linked to the global Internet.

ipv4 Headers

An essential part of the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) family, the IPv4 header describes the format of data packets sent
via IP networks. Each of the several fields that make up the IPv4 header has a distinct function that helps with data delivery
and routing.
IPv4 header fields
The IPv4 header fields are broken down into depth below:
1. Version (4 bits)
2. Header Length1 (4 bits)
3. Service Type (8 bits)
4. Total Length (16 bits)
5. Identification (16 bits)
6. Flags (3 bits)
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits)
8. Time-to-Live (TTL, 8 bits)
9. Protocol (8 bits)
10. Header Checksum (16 bits)
11. Source IP Address (32 bits)
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits)
13. Variable length options
14. Padding (variable Length)
1. Version (4 bits): Denotes the IP protocol version; IPv4 is denoted by the binary number 0100.
2. Header Length (4 bits): Indicates how many 32-bit words make up the IPv4 header. This element is essential for
determining where the data payload begins. If extra fields (such as options and padding) are present, then additional 32-bit
words are added to the minimum value (5), which denotes a 20-byte header length.
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3. Service Type (8 bits): This field is frequently used for Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) and Explicit, while it was
initially intended for Quality of Service (QoS) settings and Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) markings. Explicit
Congestion Notification (ECN) and Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) designations, which were initially intended for
Quality of Service (QoS) settings, are now frequently included in this field. ECN enables routers to notify endpoints of
congestion, whereas DSCP establishes the packet's priority and class of service.
4. Total Length (16 bits): Indicates the IPv4 packet's overall size, considering the header and data payload.
5. Identification (16 bits): A distinct identifier is assigned to every fragment of a fragmented packet to facilitate reassembly
at the destination.
6. Flags (3 bits): The three-bit flags "Reserved," "Don't Fragment (DF)," and "More Fragments (MF)" are included. These are
employed in the processes of packet reassembly and fragmentation.
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits): Enables proper reassembly by indicating where the data fragment is in the original packet.
8. Time-to-Live (TTL, 8 bits): Indicates how many hops (routers) a packet can go through before being dropped. Reduced by
one for every jump to avoid endless loops.
9. Protocol (8 bits): Indicates the protocol (such as TCP) used in the data payload, such as TCP, UDP, or ICMP.
10. Header Checksum (16 bits): Guards against corruption during transmission by authenticating the contents of the
header and ensuring its integrity.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits): The sender's IP address is specified by the source IP address (32 bits).
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits): The IP address of the intended receiver is indicated by the destination IP address (32
bits).
13. Variable length options: An optional and infrequently used field that may contain several factors, including record
route, timestamp, and others.
14. Padding (variable Length): When optional fields are provided, padding (varying Length) ensures the header terminates
on a 32-bit boundary.
In conclusion, the IPv4 header is an organised collection of fields that offers the data required for packet
delivery and routing over IP networks. Every field has a distinct function in guaranteeing the packet's
integrity, appropriate management, and effective transmission through the network.

Example
To demonstrate how the header fields work, let's look at an actual IPv4 packet example:
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To request a webpage, your computer (Source IP: [Link]) needs to contact a web server (Destination IP: [Link]).
TCP is the transport protocol that the computer uses to guarantee dependable communication.
1. Version (4 bits): IPv4 is indicated by the version set to 0100.
2. Header Length (4 bits): The header length is 5 (5 * 32 bits = 20 bytes) if no optional fields exist.
3. Type of Service (8 bits): This field indicates the desired Quality of Service for the packet and may contain DSCP and
ECN values.
4. Total Length (16 bits): This field indicates the packet's overall size, which includes the header and the data payload.
As an illustration, if the total Length is 1000 bytes, the header would be 20 bytes, and the data payload would be
980 bytes.
5. Identification (16 bits): A special identification number for this packet that can be utilised to put it back together if
it gets broken apart in transit.
6. Flags (3 bits): The computer may have set the Don't Fragment (DF) flag in this instance, indicating that it would
rather not be broken up while in transit.
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits): This field indicates the fragment's location within the original packet if it is fragmented.
8. Time-to-Live (TTL - 8 bits): This should be set to 64 or another default number. The TTL drops by one at each router
hop as the packet travels across them.
9. Protocol (8 bits): TCP is set to 6, indicating that TCP segments are included in the data payload.
10. Header Checksum (16 bits): Determined using the contents of the header to guarantee its integrity during
transmission.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits): The IP address of the sending computer, [Link], should be set as the source IP
address (32 bits).
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits): The web server's IP address, [Link], should be entered as the destination IP
address (32 bits).
13. Variable-length options: These are rarely used, but if they were, they may contain extra data, such as timestamps.
14. Padding (variable Length): Should it be required to align the header on a 32-bit boundary, padding (varying Length)
is added.
This example highlights the functions of the several IPv4 header fields in enabling dependable data transfer between
devices on an IP network by showing how they are filled in for a particular communication scenario.

Introduction to Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with others in different locations without
the use of any physical connection (wires or cables). Mobile communication makes our life easier, and it saves time and
effort.
A mobile phone (also called mobile cellular network, cell phone or hand phone) is an example of mobile communication
(wireless communication). It is an electric device used for full duplex two way radio telecommunication over a cellular
network of base stations known as cell site.

Features of Mobile Communication

The following are the features of mobile communication:

High capacity load balancing: Each wired or wireless infrastructure must incorporate high capacity load balancing.
High capacity load balancing means, when one access point is overloaded, the system will actively shift users from one
access point to another depending on the capacity which is available.
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Scalability: The growth in popularity of new wireless devices continuously increasing day by day. The wireless networks
have the ability to start small if necessary, but expand in terms of coverage and capacity as needed - without having to
overhaul or build an entirely new network.

Network management system: Now a day, wireless networks are much more complex and may consist of hundreds or
even thousands of access points, firewalls, switches, managed power and various other components.
The wireless networks have a smarter way of managing the entire network from a centralized point.
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 Role based access control: Role based access control (RBAC) allows you to assign roles based on what, who, where,
when and how a user or device is trying to access your network.
Once the end user or role of the devices is defined, access control policies or rules can be enforced.
Indoor as well as outdoor coverage options: It is important that your wireless system has the capability of adding indoor
coverage as well as outdoor coverage.
Network access control: Network access control can also be called as mobile device registration. It is essential to have a
secure registration.
Network access control (NAC) controls the role of the user and enforces policies. NAC can allow your users to register
themselves to the network. It is a helpful feature that enhances the user experience.
Mobile device management: Suppose, many mobile devices are accessing your wireless network; now think about the
thousands of applications are running on those mobile devices.
How do you plan on managing all of these devices and their applications, especially as devices come and go from your
business?
Mobile device management can provide control of how you will manage access to programs and applications. Even you can
remotely wipe the device if it is lost or stolen.

Roaming: You don't need to worry about dropped connections, slower speeds or any disruption in service as you move
throughout your office or even from building to building wireless needs to be mobile first.
Roaming allows your end-users to successfully move from one access point to another without ever noticing a dip in a
performance.
For example, allowing a student to check their mail as they walk from one class to the next.
Redundancy: The level or amount of redundancy your wireless system requires depends on your specific environment and
needs.
For example: A hospital environment will need a higher level of redundancy than a coffee shop. However, at the end of the
day, they both need to have a backup plan in place.
Proper Security means using the right firewall: The backbone of the system is your network firewall. With the right firewall
in place you will be able to:
o See and control both your applications and end users.
o Create the right balance between security and performance.
o Reduce the complexity with:
o Antivirus protection.
o Deep Packet Inspection (DPI)
o Application filtering
Protect your network and end users against known and unknown threads including:
o Zero- day.
o Encrypted malware.
o Ransomware.
o Malicious botnets.
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Switching: Basically, a network switch is the traffic cop of your wireless network which making sure that everyone and
every device gets to where they need to go.
Switching is an essential part of every fast, secure wireless network for several reasons:

o It helps the traffic on your network flow more efficiently.

o It minimizes unnecessary traffic.
o It creates a better user experience by ensuring your traffic is going to the right places.

Advantages of Mobile Communication

There are following advantages of mobile communication:
Flexibility: Wireless communication enables the people to communicate with each other regardless of location. There is no
need to be in an office or some telephone booth in order to pass and receive messages.
Cost effectiveness: In wireless communication, there is no need of any physical infrastructure (Wires or cables) or
maintenance practice. Hence, the cost is reduced.
Speed: Improvements can also be seen in speed. The network connectivity or the accessibility was much improved in
accuracy and speed.
Accessibility: With the help of wireless technology easy accessibility to the remote areas is possible. For example, in rural
areas, online education is now possible. Educators or students no longer need to travel to far-flung areas to teach their
lessons.
Constant connectivity: Constant connectivity ensures that people can respond to emergencies relatively quickly. For
example, a wireless device like mobile can ensure you a constant connectivity though you move from place to place or
while you travel, whereas a wired landline can't.

History of Wireless Communication

The history of the wireless communications started with the understanding of magnetic and electric properties observed
during the early days by the Chinese, Roman and Greek cultures and experiments carried out in the 17th and 18th
centuries. A short history of wireless communication is presented in the tabular form:

Year Description

1880 Hertz-Radio Communication

1897 Marconi- Radio Transmission

1933 FCC (Federal Communication Commission)

1938 FCC rules for regular services

1946 Bell telephone laboratories 52 MHz

1956 FCC - 450MHz (Simplex)

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1964 Bell telephone active research 800 MHz

1964 FCC - 450 MHz (Full Duplex)

1969 FCC - 40 MHz bandwidth

1981 FCC ? release of cellular land phone in the 40 MHz

At & T divested and Server RBOC (Regional Bell Operation Companies) formed to
1982
manage the cellular operation.

1984 Most RBOC market in operations

1986 FCC allocates 5MHz extended band.

1988 TDMA voted as digital cellular standard in North America.

1992 GSM (Group Special Mobile) operable Germany D2 system.

1993 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

1994 PDCC (Personal Digital Cellular Operable) in Tokyo, Japan

1995 CDMA operable in Hong Kong

Six Broad Band PCS (Personal Communication Services) licensed bands (120 MHz)
1996
almost reader 20 billion US dollar

1997 Broad band CDMA constructed and of the 3rd generation mobile.

Powerful WLAN systems were evolved, such as Bluetooth. This uses 2.4 MHz
1999
spectrum.

Generations of Wireless Communication

1G
 This is the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications, which was launched in
Japan by NTT in 1979.
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 The main technological development in this generation that distinguished the First Generation mobile phones from
the previous generation was the use of multiple cell sites, and the ability to transfer calls from one site to the next
site as the user travelled between cells during a conversation.
 It uses analog signals.
 It allows the voice calls in one country.

Disadvantages
 Poor quality of voice
 Poor life of Battery
 Size of phone was very large
 No security
 Capacity was limited
 Poor handoff reliability

2G
 This is the second generation of mobile telecommunication was launched in Finland in 1991.
 It was based on GSM standard.
 It enables data transmission like as text messaging (SMS - Short Message Service), transfer or photos or pictures
(MMS ? Multimedia Messaging Service), but not videos.
 The later versions of this generation, which were called 2.5G using GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and 2.75G
using EDGE (Enhanced data rates for GSM Evolution) networks.
 It provides better quality and capacity.

Disadvantages
 Unable to handle complex data such as Video
 Requires strong digital signals

3G
 3G is the third generation was introduced in early 2000s.
 The transmission of data was increased up to 2Mbits/s, which allows you to sending or receiving large email
messages.
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 The main difference between 3G and 2G is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data
transmission.
 Faster communication
 High speed web or more security
 Video conferencing
 3D gaming
 TV streaming, Mobile TV, phone calls etc. are the features of 3G.

Disadvantages
 Costly
 Requirement of high bandwidth
 Expensive 3G phones
 Size of cell phones was very large.

4G
 4G is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunication which was appeared in 2010.
 It was based on LTE (Long Term Evolution) and LTE advanced standards.
 Offer a range of communication services like video calling, real time language translation and video voice mail.
 It was capable of providing 100 Mbps to 1Gbps speed.
 High QoS (Quality of Service) and High security.
The basic term used to describe 4G technology is MAGIC. Where :
M - Mobile multiedia
A - Anytime anywhere
G - Global mobility support
I - Integarted wireless solution
C - Customized personal service

Disadvantages
 Uses more battery
 Difficult to implement
 Expensive equipment are required
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5G
 It is refered to fifth generation wireless connection which will be probably implemented by 2020, or even some
years earlier.
 Machine to machine communication can be possible in 5G.
 5G will be able to performs Internet of Things (IoT) for smart home and smart city, connected cars etc.
 This generation will be based on lower cost, low battery consumption and lower latency than 4G equipment.
 There will be much fater transmission rate of data to the previous versions. Thus the speed of 5G will be 1Gbit/s.
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Note-The Entire Notes have been copied from some website

- Arnav Rajput