MA1013B-16S1-Notes ucjaya@uom.
lk-Tuesday 7th February, 2017 Page 1 of 6
1 Real Numbers
√
Example 1. Find the Continued Fraction Expansions for 2, π, e and the Golden
Ratio which is the positive root of φ2 − φ − 1 = 0.
Definition 1. Set of Real numbers R is a set satisfying
1.Field Axioms
2.Order Axioms
3.Completeness Axiom
Axiom 1. Field Axioms.
R is a set with two or more elements and two binary operations + and . on them
satisfying the following properties
1. ∀a, b ∈ R; a + b ∈ R: closed under addition
2. ∀a, b, c ∈ R; a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c: addition is associative
3. ∃0 ∈ R, ∀a ∈ R; a + 0 = 0 + a = a: additive identity exists
4. ∀a ∈ R, ∃ − a ∈ R; a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0: additive inverse exists
5. ∀a, b ∈ R; a + b = b + a: addition is commutative
6. ∀a, b ∈ R; a.b ∈ R: closed under multiplication
7. ∀a, b, c ∈ R; a.(b.c) = (a.b).c: multiplication is associative
8. ∃1 ∈ R − {0}, ∀a ∈ R; a.1 = 1.a = a: multiplicative identity exists
9. ∀a ∈ R − {0}, ∃a−1 ∈ R; a.a−1 = a−1 .a = 1: multiplicative inverse exists
10. ∀a, b ∈ R; a.b = b.a: multiplication is commutative
11. ∀a, b, c ∈ R; a.(b + c) = (a.b) + (a.c): multiplication is distributive over addition
Definition 2.
a − b = a + (−b): Subtraction
If a 6= 0, ab = a.b−1 : Division
Definition 3.
1. We write 1 + 1 = 2, 2 + 1 = 3, 3 + 1 = 4 and so on.
2. Set of Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, · · · }
3. Set of Natural Numbers N = Z+ ∪ {0}
4. Set of Negative Integers Z− = {−a|a ∈ Z+ }
5. Set of Integers Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+
6. Set of Rational Numbers Q = { pq |p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0}
7. Set of Irrational Numbers Qc = R − Q
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b
8. If a, b ∈ Z we say a divides b or a is a factor of b and write a|b iff a ∈Z
9. p ∈ Z+ − {1} is a Prime Number iff 1 and p are its only factors.
Example 2. Any set of two or more elements with two binary operations satisfying
the fields axioms is called a Field. See if the following are fields
1. R with . and +
2. Z, Q, Qc with + and .
3. {0, 1, 2} with mod 3 arithmetic
4. {0, 1, 2, 3} with mod 4 arithmetic
Theorem 1.
1. There are initially many prime numbers.
2. Every n ∈ Z+ − {1} is a prime number or a unique product of prime numbers
3. Gaps between prime numbers can be arbitrary large.
4. {0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1} is a field iff n is prime.
Definition 4. Integer Powers
If a 6= 0, a0 = 1
If a 6= 0, n ∈ Z+ then an = a.an−1
If a 6= 0, n ∈ Z+ then a−n = (a−1 )n
Example 3. Prove the following with a, b, c ∈ R
1. If a + b = 0 then b = −a
2. If a + c = b + c then a = b
3. −(a + b) = (−a) + (−b)
4. −(−a) = a
5. a.0 = 0
6. 0, 1, −a, a−1 are unique
7. If a 6= 0 and ab = 1 then b = a−1
8. If ac = bc and c 6= 0 then a = b
9. If ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0
10. −(ab) = (−a)b = a(−b)
11. (−a)(−b) = ab
12. If a 6= 0, (a−1 )−1 = a
13. If a, b 6= 0, (ab)−1 = a−1 b−1
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14. If a 6= 0 and m, n ∈ Z then am an = am+n
15. If a, b 6= 0, n ∈ Z, (ab)n = an bn
Axiom 2. Order Axioms
R has a Order < satisfying the following.
12. ∀a, b ∈ R;exactly one of a = b, a < b, b < a holds: Trichotomy
13. ∀a, b, c ∈ R; a < b and b < c implies a < c: Transitivity
14. ∀a, b, c ∈ R; a < b implies a + c < b + c: operations with addition
15. ∀a, b ∈ R; a < b and 0 < c implies ac < bc: operations with multiplication
Definition 5.
b > a is same as a < b
a ≤ b means a < b or a = b
Above follows that a 6= b is either a < b or a > b.
Definition 6. Absolute Value |a| = a if a ≥ 0 and −a if a < 0
Example 4.
1. ∀a, b ∈ R; a < b and c < 0 implies ac > bc
2. 1 > 0
3. a > 0 iff a−1 > 0
4. If a < b and c < d then a + c < b + d
5. If 0 < a < b and 0 < c < d then ac < bd
6. See if | defines an order in Z
7. |a| ≤ r iff −r ≤ a ≤ r
8. a2 ≥ 0
9. |ab| = |a||b|
10. |a| − |b| ≤ |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
11. ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b|
12. |a + b|2 + |a − b|2 = 2|a|2 + 2|b|2
Definition 7. Let A be a non-empty subset of R. Then
1. Upper Bound of A: u ∈ R such that ∀a ∈ A; a ≤ u
2. Bounded Above: An upper bound exists
3. Maximum(largest) element of A: max A = u ∈ A and u is an upper bound of A
4. Lower Bound of A: ` ∈ R such that ∀a ∈ A; ` ≤ a
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5. Bounded Below: A lower bound exists
6. Minimum(least) element of A: min A = ` ∈ A and ` is a lower bound of A
7. Supremum of A: sup A=least upper bound of A.
8. Infimum of A: inf A=largest lower bound of A.
9. Bounded: bounded above and bounded below
Axiom 3. Completeness Axiom.
16. Every non-empty subset of R which is bounded above has a supremum.
17. Every non-empty subset of R which is bounded below has a infimum
Definition 8. Real Intervals, a < b
1. (a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b}: Open interval
2. (a, b] = {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}: half open/closed interval
3. [a, b) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b}: half open/closed interval
4. [a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}: Closed interval
Example 5. Assume that A, B ⊂ R are non-empty subsets which are bounded above
1. Prove that sup(a, b) = b and inf(a, b) = a.
2. Which of the following sets have the completeness axiom property Z, Q, Qc
3. Show that Z is unbounded.
4. Show that for every a ∈ R there is n ∈ Z such that n > a.
5. Show that for given a, b ∈ R with b > a, there exists n ∈ Z such that na > b
6. Show that for a, b ∈ Z+ such that a < b, there exists unique x, y ∈ Z+ such that
b = xa + y with 0 ≤ y < a
7. Prove the existence of inf using the existence of sup with suitable conditions.
8. Suppose we have ∀a ∈ A, ∀b ∈ B; a < b. Show that sup A ≤ sup B.
9. Show that ∀ > 0, ∃a ∈ A; a + > sup A
10. Show that ∀ > 0, ∃a ∈ A; a − < inf A
11. Show that if ∃a, ∀ > 0; 0 ≤ a < then a = 0
12. Define A + B = {a + b|a ∈ A, b ∈ B}. Show that sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B
13. Show that there is a rational number and an irrational number between any two
real numbers.
14. Show that for each a ≥ 0 there exists a unique real number x ≥ 0 such that x2 = a
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Definition 9.
Ordered Pair (x, y) = {{x}, {x, y}}
Cartesian Product between two sets A, B: A × B = {(x, y)|x ∈ A, y ∈ B}
Definition 10. Relation. Let A, B be non-empty.
• Then a Relation P : A → B is a non-empty subset of A × B
P y, xP y, P to mean (x, y) ∈ P
• We write any of P : x 7→ y, x−→ x y
• A is called the Domain or domP
• B is called the Co-domain or codomP
• {y|(x, y) ∈ P } is called the Range or ranP .
• {x|(x, y) ∈ P } is called the Pre-range or preranP
• P is One-many iff ∃x ∈ A, ∃y1 , y2 ∈ B; (x, y1 ), (x, y2 ) ∈ P ∧ y1 6= y2
• This implies that P is not one-many iff ∀x ∈ A, ∀y1 , y2 ∈ B; (x, y1 ), (x, y2 ) ∈ P ⇒
y1 = y2
• P is Many-one iff ∃x1 , x2 ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B; (x1 , y), (x2 , y) ∈ P ∧ x1 6= x2
• This implies that P is not many-one iff ∀x1 , x2 ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B; (x1 , y), (x2 , y) ∈ P ⇒
x1 = x2
• P is Many-many iff it is one-many and many one.
• P is One-one(Injection) iff it is not one-many and not many-one.
• P is Onto(Surjection) iff ranP = B. Note that P is onto iff ∀y ∈ B∃x ∈
A; (x, y) ∈ P
• P is a Bijection iff it is one-one and onto
• P −1 : B → A defined by P −1 = {(y, x)|(x, y) ∈ P } is the Inverse relation of P
• If Q : B → C is also a relation,we define the Composite relation Q ◦ P : A → C
as Q ◦ P = {(x, z)|(x, y) ∈ P ∧ (y, z) ∈ Q}. This requires ranP ∩ preranQ 6= ø.
Definition 11. Function. Let A, B be non-empty sets.
• Then the function f : A → B is a relation which is not one-many and A =
preranf .
• The above allows us to write (x, y) ∈ f as f (x) = y
• The inverse function f −1 is the inverse relation f −1 : B → A which is also a
function. This requires f to be a bijection.
• If g : B → C is also a function, the composite function g ◦ f is the relation
g ◦ f : A → C. Here the requirement ranf ∩ prerang 6= ø is automatically satisfied.
Being functions we can simply write (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) for all x ∈ A
• When A, B are non-empty subsets of R we say that f is a real valued function.
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Definition 12. Let f, g : A → B be real valued functions. We define
1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x ∈ A
2. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) for all x ∈ A
3. (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for all x ∈ A
f (x)
4. ( fg )(x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A if g(x) 6= 0
Definition 13. Countable set
A set A is said to be Countable iff there exists a one-one function f : A → Z+
A set is Uncountable iff it is not countable.
Example 6.
√ √
1. Evaluate ( x)2 , x2 , sin(sin−1 x), sin−1 (sin x)
2. Find
p the maximal
p domain and range of f (x) = x2 and define the inverse functions
(·) and − (·).
3. Do the above for exp, sin, cos, tan functions.
4. Let f (x) = x + x1 . Find the range and domain. Show that the function is not
one-one. Restrict the domain and find an inverse function.
5. Let f : A → B be a bijection. Show that (f ◦ f −1 )(y) = y for all y ∈ B and
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ A.
1−x
6. Let f (x) = 1+x and g(x) = 4x(1 − x) with suitable domains. Find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
7. Let F be the set of onto functions f : A → A. Is F under the composition
operations ◦ form a Group(structure similar to R with +)?
8. Let f : A → B and C, D ⊆ A and let f (C) = {f (x)|x ∈ C}. Show that f (C ∪D) =
f (C) ∪ f (D) and f (C ∩ D) ⊆ f (C) ∩ f (D)
9. Show that the composition of two one-one functions is one-one and the composition
of two onto functions is onto.
10. Show that the integers and rational numbers are countable, but irrationals are
uncountable.
11. Show that a subset of a countable set is countable and that a superset of an un-
countable set is uncountable.
