Chapter 5

Airfoils

1 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

• Introduction
In this chapter the following will be studied:
1- Geometric characteristics of the airfoils.
2- Aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoils.
3- Flow similarity ( Dynamic similarity )
■ Airfoil Geometric Characteristics

2 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 3 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

Airfoil geometric characteristics include:

1- Mean camber line : The locus of points halfway between
the upper and lower surfaces as measured perpendicular
to the mean camber line.
2- Leading & trailing edges: The most forward and rearward
points of the mean camber line.
3- Chord line: The straight line connecting the leading and
trailing edges.

4 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 4- Chord C : The distance from the leading to trailing edge
measured along the chord line.
5- Camber : The maximum distance between the mean
camber line and the chord line.
6- Leading edge radius and its shape through the leading
edge.
7- The thickness distribution: The distance from the upper
surface to the lower surface, measured perpendicular
to chord line

5 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

►Airfoil Families (Series)

# NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) or

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space administration)
identified different airfoil shapes with a logical numbering
system.

# Abbott & Von Doenhoff “ Theory of Wing Sections”

includes a summary of airfoil data ( geometric and
aerodynamic data )

6 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ■NACA Airfoil Series

1- NACA 4-digit series

2- NACA 5-digit series
3- NACA 1-series or 16-series
4- NACA 6- series
5- NACA 7- series
6- NACA 8- series

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

►NACA Four-Digit Series

Example: NACA 2412

NACA 2 4 12

Maximum thickness (t )
Camber in Position of camber in percentage of chord
percentage of chord in tenths of chord (t/c)max = 0.12
yc = 0.02 C xc = 0.4 C

xc yc
C

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 9 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

►NACA Five-Digit Series

Example: NACA 23012

NACA 2 30 12

When multiplied by 3/2 When divided by 2, gives

yields the design lift Maximum thickness
the position of the
coefficient Cl in tenths. (t ) in percentage of
camber in percent of
Cl = 0.3 chord (t/c)max = 0.12
chord xc = 0.15 C

10 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ►NACA Six- Series
Example: NACA 64-212

NACA 6 4 - 2 12

Series Location of minimum Maximum thickness (t )

designation 6 pressure in tenths of in percentage of chord
chord (0.4 C) (t/c)max = 0.12
Design lift
coefficient in
tenths (0.2)

►Note that this is the series of laminar airfoils .

Comparison of conventional and laminar flow airfoils
is shown in the following Figure.

11 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

Pressure distribution
On upper surface

Conventional Airfoil
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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 Pressure distribution
On upper surface

Laminar Airfoil

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

• The Handbook “Theory of Wing Sections” gives the

shape of airfoils in terms of upper and lower surfaces
station and ordinate as given in the following Tables.
• Airfoils can be drawn using these Tables.
• From airfoil drawing we can extract its geometric data:
- camber line
- maximum camber ratio and its position
- maximum thickness ratio and its position
-leading edge radius
-trailing edge angle

Assignment 1 : Meaning of numbering system for NACA 1-series,

NACA 7-Series, and NACA 8- Series.

14 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 • Tabe for NACA 2410, 2412, 2415

15 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

■Center of Pressure and Aerodynamic Center

# Center or pressure : The point of intersection between

the chord line and the line of action of the resultant
aerodynamic force R.

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 # In addition to lift and drag, the surface pressure and
shear stress distribution create a moment M which tends
to rotate the wing.

# Moment on Airfoil

17 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

• Neglect shear stress

• F1 is the resultant pressure force on the upper surface.
• F2 is the resultant pressure force on the lower surface.
• Points 1 & 2 are the points of action of F1 & F2 .
• R is resultant force of F1 & F2 .
• F1 ≠ F2 because the pressure distribution on the upper
surface differs from the pressure distribution on the lower
surface.
• Thus, F1 & F2 will create an aerodynamic moment M
which will tend to rotate the airfoil.
• The value of M depends on the point about which we
choose to take moment.
• For subsonic airfoils it is common to take moments about
the quarter-chord point. It is denoted by Mc/4 .

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 Mc/4 is function of angle of attack α, i.e. its value depends
on α .

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

■ Aerodynamic Center

≠ Aerodynamic center: The point on the chord line about

which moments does not vary with α.
●The moment about the aerodynamic center (ac) is
designated Mac .
● By definition, Mac = constant
● For low-speed and subsonic airfoils, ac is generally very
close to the quarter-chord point

20 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ■Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients

For an airplane in flight, L, D, and M depend on:

1- Angle of attack α
2- Free-stream velocity V∞
3- Free-stream density ρ∞ , that is, altitude
4- Viscosity coefficient µ∞
5- Compressibility of the airflow which is governed by
21 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

Mach number M∞ = V∞/a∞. Since V∞ is listed above, we

can designate a∞ as our index for compressibility.
6- Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplane we use
the plan form wing area S to indicate size.
7- Shape of the airfoil.
● Hence, for a given shape of airfoil, we can write:
L = f1( α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S )
D = f2( α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S )
M = f3( α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S )

●The variation of L with (α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S) taking one at

a time with the others constant could be obtained by
experiment in a wind tunnel .

22 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 L (V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S) (α, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S) (α, V∞, µ∞ , a∞, S)
L
= const = const L = const
1 2 3

α V∞ ρ∞
(α, V∞, ρ∞, a∞, S)
(α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞, S)
(α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞, a∞)
= const
L = const L
L = const
4 5 6

µ∞ S
a∞

Therefore, 6 experiments are required for each dependent variable.

23 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

● Then by cross plotting that data obtained, we could be

able to get a precise functional relation for L, D, and M.
● This is the hard way which could be very time consuming
and costly.
●Instead, we can use the theory of dimensional analysis.
●This theory can reduce time, effort, and cost by grouping
α, V∞, ρ∞, µ∞ , a∞, S , and L or D or M into a fewer
number of non-dimensional parameters.
●The results of this theory are:
CL= f1 (α,, M∞, Re)
CD = f2 (α,, M∞, Re)
CM = f3 (α,, M∞, Re)

-where CL = L/ q∞S = Lift coefficient

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 - CD = D/ q∞S = Drag coefficient
- CM= M/ q∞S C = Moment coefficient

and q∞ = ½ ρ∞ V2∞ , C = Airfoil chord

Dynamic
- Re = ρ∞ V∞ C/μ∞ = Reynolds number similarity
- M∞ = V∞ / a∞ = Mach number parameters
►Note :
1- For airfoil ( 2D flow ) S=Cx1
2- CL cl , L l Per
3- CD cd , D d unit
4- CM cm , M m span

25 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

■ Airfoil Data
● A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict
values of cl, cd, and cm from the basic equations
and concepts of physical science.
● However, simplifying assumptions are usually
necessary to make the mathematics tractable.
● Therefore, when theoretical results are
obtained, they are generally not “exact”.
● As a result we have to rely on experimental
measurements.
● cl, cd, and cm were measured by NACA for large
number of airfoils in low-speed wind tunnels.
● At low-speed the effect of M∞ is cancelled.
26 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ●These measurements were carried out on straight,
constant-chord wings completely spanned the tunnel test
section from one side to the other.
● In this fashion, the flow essentially “ saw” a wing with no
wing tips, and the experimental airfoil data were obtained
for “infinite wings”

27 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

28 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ● Results of airfoil measurements include cl, cd, cm,c/4, and
cm,ac.
● The results are given in the form of graphs as follows:
- The 1st page of graph gives data for cl and cm,c/4 versus
angle of attack for the NACA airfoil.
- The 2nd page of graph gives cd and cm,ac versus cl for
the same airfoil.
Note: Some results of these airfoil data are given in
Appendix D ( “Introduction to Flight”, Anderson )

29 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

Example: Airfoil data for NACA 2415

cl and cm,c/4
versus α
NACA 2415

Mach number is not

included

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 cd and cm,ac
versus cl
NACA 2415

Mach number is not

included

31 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

Mach number is not

included

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 Mach number is not
included

33 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

►Variation of cl with α
● This variation is shown in the following sketch.
* cl varies linearly with α over a large range of α.
* At α = 0 cl ≠ 0 due to the positive camber.
* cl = 0 at αL=0 ( zero lift direction/zero lift angle of attack)
* For large values of α,the linearity breaks down.

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 * As α is increased beyond a certain value; cl reaches to
clmax and then drops as α is further increased.
* When cl is rapidly decreasing at high α , the airfoil is
stalled.
Separated flow

Flow mechanism
associated with
stalling

35 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

►Comparison of Lift Curves for Cambered and Symmetric Airfoils

* For symmetric airfoil the lift curve goes through the origin.

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Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ►The Phenomenon of Airfoil Stall

*It is of critical importance

in airplane design.
*It is caused by flow Separated flow

separation on the upper

surface of the airfoil due to
high adverse pressure
gradient.
*When separation occurs,
the lift decreases
drastically, and the drag
increases suddenly.

37 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

38 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ■Compressibility Correction For Lift & Moment Coefficient
For 0.3 < M∞ ≤ 0.7 , the corrections for cl and cm , using
<Prandtl-Glauert rule , are given as:

- cl = cl,0 / √ [1- M∞2]

- cm = cm,0 / √ [1- M∞2]

Where cl,0 is the low-speed value of the lift coefficient,

cm,0 is the low-speed value of the moment coefficient.

39 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

■ Flow Similarity (Dynamic Similarity)

40 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 • Consider two different flow fields over two different
bodies, as shown in figure.
• By definition, different flows are dynamically similar if:
1- The bodies and any other solid boundaries are
geometrically similar for the flow.
2- The dynamic similarity parameters are the same for
flows ( i.e.Re and M∞ are the same for the flows).
# If different flows are dynamically similar, the following
results are satisfied:
1- The streamline patterns are geometrically similar.
2- The distribution of v/v∞ , p/p ∞,T/T ∞ ,..etc throughout
the flow field are the same when plotted against
common non-dimensional coordinates.
3- The force and moment coefficients are the same (i.e.
cl, cd, and cm are the same.
41 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

v/v∞

s1/d1 , s2/d2

* Thus we can say that flows over geometrically similar bodies

at the same Mach and Reynolds numbers are dynamically
similar.
• Hence, the lift, drag, and moment coefficients will be identical
for the bodies.

42 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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 ►This is the key point in the validity of wind-tunnel testing:
“ If a scale model of a flight vehicle is tested in a wind
tunnel, the measured lift, drag, and moment coefficients
will be the same as for free flight as long as the Mach
and Reynolds numbers of the wind-tunnel test-section
flow are the same as for the free-flight case”
# This means that:
[ M∞1 ]model = [ M∞2 ]prototype
[ Re1 ]model = [ Re2 ]prototype

and [ cl1 ]model = [ cl2 ]prototype

[ cd1]model = [ cd2 ]prototype
[ cm1 ]model = [ cm2 ]prototype

43 Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept. Cairo University

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