Engineering Metrology
and Measurements
N.V. Raghavendra
L. Krishnamurthy
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Chapter 1
Basic Principles of
Engineering Metrology
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Introduction
✓ Measurement encompasses different fields such as
communications, energy, medical sciences, food sciences,
environment, trade, transportation, and military applications.
✓ Metrology concerns itself with the study of measurements.
✓ Measurement is an act of assigning an accurate and precise
value to a physical variable.
✓ The physical variable then gets transformed into a measured
variable.
✓ Meaningful measurements require common measurement
standards and must be performed using them.
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Definition
✓ Metrology literally means science of measurements.
✓ In practical applications, it is the enforcement, verification and
validation of predefined standards.
✓ Metrology is also concerned with the industrial inspection and
its various techniques.
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Definition
Metrology also deals with
a. Establishing the units of measurements and their
reproduction in the form of standards.
b. Ascertaining the uniformity of measurements.
c. Developing methods of measurement, analyzing the
accuracy of methods of measurement.
d. Establishing uncertainty of measurement, and investigating
the causes of measuring errors and subsequently eliminating
them.
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Inspection
✓ Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or product
characteristic, such as a dimension, is examined to determine
whether it conforms to the design specification.
✓ In inspection, the part either passes or fails. Thus, industrial
inspection has become a very important aspect of quality
control.
✓ Industrial inspection assumed importance because of mass
production, which involved interchangeability of parts
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Inspection
Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
1. Ascertain that the part, material, or component conforms to the
established or desired standard.
2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
3. Sustain customer goodwill by ensuring that no defective product
reaches the customers.
4. Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in manufacture.
The results of inspection are recorded and reported to the
manufacturing department for further action to ensure
production of acceptable parts and reduction in scrap.
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Inspection
5. Purchase good-quality raw materials, tools, and equipment that
govern the quality of the finished products.
6. Coordinate the functions of quality control, production,
purchasing, and other departments of the organizations.
7. Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts, that is,
to assess the \ possibility of making some of these parts
acceptable after minor repairs.
8. Promote the spirit of competition, which leads to the
manufacture of quality products in bulk by eliminating
bottlenecks and adopting better production techniques.
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Accuracy
✓ Accuracy of measurement is very important for manufacturing a
quality product.
✓ Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension
with its true magnitude.
✓ Accuracy can also be defined as the maximum amount by which
the result differs from true value or as the nearness of the
measured values to its true value often expressed as a %.
✓ True value may be defined as the mean of the infinite number of
measured values when the average deviation due to the various
contributing factors tends to zero.
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Accuracy
✓ In practice, realization of the true value is not possible due to
uncertainties of the measuring process and hence cannot be
determined experimentally.
✓ Positive and negative deviations from the true value are not
equal and will not cancel each other.
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Precision
✓ Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring
process.
✓ Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.
✓ The ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same
results during the act of measurements for the same quantity is
known as repeatability.
✓ Repeatability is random in nature and, by itself, does not assure
accuracy, though it is a desirable characteristic.
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Precision
✓ Precision refers to the consistent reproducibility of a measurement.
✓ Reproducibility is normally specified in terms of scale reading over a given
period of time.
✓ If an instrument is not precise it would give different results for the same
dimension for the repeated readings.
Difference between Precision & Accuracy
✓ Accuracy gives information regarding how far the measured value is with
respect to the true value, whereas precision indicates quality of measurement,
without giving any assurance that the measurement is correct.
✓ These concepts are directly related to random and systematic measurement
errors.
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Precision & Accuracy
Figure 1 also depicts clearly the difference between the precision and accuracy.
a) Precise but not (b) Accurate but not (c) Precise and d) Not Precise and
not Accurate Precise Accurate Accurate
Figure 1.1: Accuracy and Precision.
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Precision & Accuracy: Error
✓ The difference between the true value and the mean value
of the set of readings on the same component is termed as
an error.
✓ Error can also be defined as the difference between the
indicated value and the true value of the quantity measured.
E = Vm − Vt
where E is the absolute error, Vm the measured value, and Vt the true value.
✓ Error of instrument 1: 2g in measured weight of 1kg
✓ Error of instrument 2: 2g in measured weight of 10g
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Precision & Accuracy
Accuracy of an instrument can also be expressed as % error/relative error.
If an instrument measures Vm instead of Vt, then,
% error = x 100
Or
% error = x 100
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Sensitivity, Consistency and Range
✓ Sensitivity is the ability of measuring instrument to detect
small variations in quantity being measured.
Case study: Imagine measuring four rods of dimensions 20.1, 20.11, 20.12 and
20.15mm using Vernier caliper and Micrometer???? Which one is more sensitive?
✓ When the successive readings of measured quantity obtained
from measuring instrument are same all the time, equipment
is said to be consistent
A highly accurate instrument possess both sensitivity and consistency
✓ Range is defined as difference between lower and higher
values that an instrument is able to measure. Range of VC?
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Accuracy and Cost
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General Measurement Concepts
The three basic elements of measurements
1. Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to
be measured.
2. Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a
known standard (reference) for evaluation.
3. Reference, the physical quantity or property to which quantitative
comparisons are to be made, which is internationally accepted
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Calibration of Measuring Instruments
✓ The process of validation of the measurements to ascertain whether
the given physical quantity conforms to the original/national standard
of measurement is known as traceability of the standard.
✓ Calibration is the procedure used to establish a relationship between
the values of the quantities indicated by the measuring instrument
and the corresponding values realized by standards under specified
conditions.
Calibration is the means of achieving traceability
✓ If the values of the variable involved remain constant (not time
dependent) while calibrating a given instrument, this type of
calibration is known as Static calibration,
✓ whereas if the value is time dependent or time-based information is
required, it is called Dynamic calibration.
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Systematic or Controllable Errors
✓ A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true
value of measurement.
✓ These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and their direction.
✓ These types of errors can be assessed and minimized if efforts are made to
analyze them. The following are the reasons for their occurrence.
• Calibration errors
• Ambient conditions
• Deformation of work piece and
• Avoidable errors
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Avoidable Errors
✓ Datum error
✓ Reading errors
✓ Misreading of the instrument
✓ Errors due to parallax effect
✓ Effect of misalignment
✓ Zero Errors
Random Errors
✓ Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when
measurements of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.
✓ When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component
under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.
✓ They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive or negative.
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Sources of Errors
The following are the likely sources of random errors:
✓ Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring
instrument.
✓
Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
✓ Error in operator’s judgment in reading the fractional part of
engraved scale divisions.
✓ Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations
during measurement.
✓ Positional errors associated with the measured object and standard,
arising due to small variations in setting.
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Random Errors
Figure 1.5 clearly depicts the relationship between systematic and random errors
with respect to the measured value.
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Difference between Systematic and
Random Errors
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Methods of Measurement (Self study)
✓ Direct Method
✓ Indirect Method ✓ Complementary Method
✓ Fundamental or Absolute ✓ Null Measurement Method
Method ✓ Substitution Method
✓ Comparative Method ✓ Contact Method
✓ Transposition Method ✓ Contactless Method
✓ Coincidence Method ✓ Composite Method
✓ Deflection Method
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