INDUSTRIAL CONTROL AND

A U T O M AT I O N
INTRODUCTION
• A controller is a device that generates an output signal based on the input
signal it receives
• The input signal is actually an error signal, which is the difference between the
measured variable and the desired value as can be shown in feedback control
system
INTRODUCTION
• The input signal is actually an error signal,
INTRODUCTION

• A sensor measures and transmits the current value of the process

variable(PV) back to the controller
• Controller error(e(t)) at current time t is computed as set-point(SP)
minus measured process variable as in (1).
• The controller uses this e(t) in a control algorithm to compute a new
controller output signal
• The controller output signal is sent to the final control element (e.g. valve,
pump, heater, fan, motor) causing it to change
INTRODUCTION

• The change in the final control element causes a change in a

manipulated variable
• The change in the manipulated variable (e.g. flow rate of liquid or gas) causes a
change in the PV
INTRODUCTION

• A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller or three term

controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial
control systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously
modulated control

• A PID controller continuously calculates an error value e(t) as the difference

between a desired set point (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms
(denoted P, I, and D respectively) which give the controller its name
INTRODUCTION

• The first theoretical analysis and practical application was in the field of
automatic steering systems for ships, developed from the early 1920s onwards
• It was then used for automatic process control in manufacturing industry,
where it was widely implemented in pneumatic, and then electronic,
controllers
• Today there is universal use of the PID concept in applications requiring
accurate and optimized automatic control
• PID control is widely used in all areas where control is applied(solves(90%of all
control problems)
INTRODUCTION
• PID control is widely used in all areas where control is applied(solves(90%of all
control problems)

Cement Process Plant Natural Gas-power Plant

 INTRODUCTION
• PID control is widely used in all areas where control is applied(solves(90%of all
control problems)

Sugar
Making
Process
Plant
 INTRODUCTION
• An everyday example is the cruise control on a car, where ascending a hill would
lower speed if only constant engine power were applied
• The controller's PID algorithm restores the measured speed to the desired speed
with minimal delay and overshoot by increasing the power output of the engine
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CONTROL
SYSTEM
• The essential requirements of a good Control System can be listed as follows:
1) Accuracy: Accuracy must be very high as error arising should be
corrected. Accuracy can be improved by the use of feedback element.
2) Sensitivity: A good control system senses quick changes in the
output due to an environment, parametric changes, internal and external
disturbances.
3) Noise: Noise is a unwanted signal and a good control system should
be sensitive to these type of disturbances.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CONTROL
SYSTEM
• The essential requirements of a good Control System can be listed as follows:
4) Stability: The stable systems has bounded input and bounded output. A
good control system should response to the undesirable changes in the stability.
5) Bandwidth: To obtain a good frequency response, bandwidth of a system
should be large.
6) Speed: A good control system should have high speed that is the output of
the system should be fast as possible.
7) Oscillation: For a good control system oscillation in the output
should be constant or at least has small oscillation.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CONTROL
SYSTEM
 CONTROLLER MODES
• In industry there are many control modes as follows:
1) ON-OFF controller/two position controller as temperature controller
used for domestic heating system.
2) Three-position controller
3) Proportional Action Control
4) Integral/Reset Action Control
5)Derivative/Rate Action Control
6) P+I Control
7) P+D Control
8) P+I+D Control
CONTROLLER MODES

P depends on the present error

I depends on accumulation of past

errors

D is a prediction of future errors,

based on current rate of change
CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, D
CONTROLLERS
• A proportional controller (Kp ) will have the effect of reducing the rise time
and will reduce but never eliminate the steady state error
• An integral control (Ki ) will have the effect of eliminating the steady- state
error for a constant or step input, but it may make the transient response
slower
• A derivative control (Kd ) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the
system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response
CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, D
CONTROLLERS
• Changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two
• With the PID controller we can set the P+I+D values so that we will not have
any Over or undershoot and reach set point directly
• PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on change of the
controller input (D mode), increase in control signal to lead error towards
zero (I mode) and suitable action inside control error area to eliminate
oscillations (P mode)
• This combination of {Present + Past + Future} makes it possible to control
the application very well.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
• In a proportional controller the output (also called the actuating/control signal)
is directly proportional to the error signal.

If the error signal is a voltage, and the

Common in automobile speed control by pedal control signal is also a voltage, then a
proportional controller is just an amplifier
PROPERTIES OF PROPORTIONAL
CONTROLLER
• In a proportional controller, steady state error tends to depend inversely upon
the proportional gain, so if the gain is made larger the error goes down
• Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state error, thus makes
the system more stable
• Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help of
these controllers
• P controller has the advantage of reducing down the steady state error of the
system , but along with that it also has some serious disadvantages
PROPERTIES OF PROPORTIONAL
CONTROLLER

Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for three values of Kp (Ki and Kd held constant)
DISADVANTAGES OF P CONTROLLER

• Due to presence of these controllers we have some offsets in the system

• Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of the system
• It directly amplifies process noise

✓ To avoid these errors and to make the controller more accurate and
practical, It is better to use the advanced and modified version of controllers
known as the Proportional Integral Controllers (PI) and
Proportional Derivative Controllers (PD).
INTEGRAL
• An integral term increases action in relation not only to the error but also the
time for which it has persisted. So, if applied force is not enough to bring the
error to zero, this force will be increased as time passes

• A pure "I" controller could bring the error to zero, however, it would be both
slow reacting at the start (because action would be small at the beginning,
needing time to get significant), brutal (the action increases as long as the error
is positive, even if the error has started to approach zero)…..

• And slow to end (when the error switches sides, this for some time will only
reduce the strength of the action from "I", not make it switch sides as well),
prompting overshoot and oscillations
INTEGRAL

• An alternative formulation of integral action is to change the electric current

in small persistent steps that are proportional to the current error

• Over time the steps accumulate and add up dependent on past errors; this is
the discrete-time equivalent to integration
INTEGRAL

Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)
DERIVATIVE

• A derivative term does not consider the error (meaning it cannot bring it to
zero: a pure D controller cannot bring the system to its set-point), but the rate
of change of error, trying to bring this rate to zero
• It aims at flattening the error trajectory into a horizontal line, damping the
force applied, and so reduces overshoot (error on the other side because too
great applied force)
• Applying too much energy when the error is small and is reducing will lead to
overshoot
DERIVATIVE
• After overshooting, if the controller were to apply a large correction in the
opposite direction and repeatedly overshoot the desired position, the output
would oscillate around the set-point in either a constant, growing, or decaying
sinusoid
• If the amplitude of the oscillations increase with time, the system is unstable. If
they decrease, the system is stable
• If the oscillations remain at a constant magnitude, the system is marginally
stable
DERIVATIVE

Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)
PID IN COMMON PRACTICE

• Although a PID controller has three control terms, some applications use
only one or two terms to provide the appropriate control. This is achieved
by setting the unused parameters to zero and is called a PI, PD, P or I
controller in the absence of the other control actions
• PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to
measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the
system from reaching its target value
PID IN COMMON PRACTICE
PID IN COMMON PRACTICE

• Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more
complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive,
the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement-
detection circuit of a modern seismometer
• Discrete electronic analogue controllers have been largely replaced by digital
controllers using microcontrollers, DSPs or FPGAs, to implement PID
algorithms
• Most modern PID controls in industry are implemented as computer software
in distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
or discrete compact controllers.
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL

• The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback control

system, with constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the process, and
thus overall performance is reactive and a compromise
• PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID
loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot,
oscillate or hunt about the control set point value
• Have difficulties in the presence of non-linearities, may trade-off regulation
versus response time, do not react to changing process behavior (say, the
process changes after it has warmed up), and have lag in responding to large
disturbances
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL

• The most significant improvement is to incorporate feed-forward control

with knowledge about the system, and using the PID only to control error
• Alternatively, PIDs can be modified in more minor ways, such as by changing
the parameters (either gain scheduling in different use cases or
adaptively modifying them based on performance)
– improving measurement (higher sampling rate, precision, and accuracy, and low-
pass filtering if necessary), or cascading multiple PID controllers
LIMITATIONS OF PID CONTROL (SKIP)

• Closed-loop Response performance depends on the effects of PID parameters

as can be shown in the following table when the parameters are increased
Increasing PID controller parameters with the performance of the closed loop

parameter Rise time Overshoot Settling SSE Stability

time
Kp decrease increase Small change decrease degrade
Ki decrease increase increase Eliminate degrade
Kd Minor change decrease decrease No effect Improve if
Kd small

Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because P, I and D gains are
dependent of each other
TUNING PARAMETERS ESSENTIALLY
DETERMINE:(SKIP)
• How much correction should be made? The magnitude of the
correction (change in controller output) is determined by the proportional
mode of the controller.
• How long the correction should be applied? The duration of the adjustment
to the controller output is determined by the integral mode of the controller.
• How fast should the correction be applied? The speed at which a correction
is made is determined by the derivative mode of the controller.
PID TUNING ALGORITHM (SKIP)

• Closed-loop stability: The closed-loop system output remains bounded for

bounded input.
• Adequate performance: The closed-loop system tracks reference changes
and suppresses disturbances as rapidly as possible. The larger the loop
bandwidth (the frequency of unity open-loop gain), the faster the controller
responds to changes in the reference or disturbances in the loop.
• Adequate robustness: The loop design has enough gain margin and phase
margin to allow for modeling errors or variations in system dynamics.
PID TUNING ALGORITHM (SKIP)

• Users of control systems are frequently faced with the task of adjusting the
controller parameters to obtain a desired behavior.
• One approach is to go through the conventional steps of modeling
and control design
• Since the PID controller has so few parameters, a number of special empirical
methods have also been developed for direct adjustment of the controller
parameter
• The first tuning rules were developed by Ziegler and Nichols (Ziegler–Nichols
tuning rules)
PID CONTROLLERS AND
COMPENSATION
• The series configuration of PID control consists of a proportional plus
derivative (PD) compensator cascaded with a proportional plus integral (PI)
compensator
• The purpose of the PD compensator is to improve the transient
response while maintaining the stability
• The purpose of the PI compensator is to improve the steady state accuracy of
the system without degrading the stability
• Since speed of response, accuracy, and stability are what is needed for
satisfactory response, cascading PD and PI will suffice
PID CONTROLLERS AND
COMPENSATION
• Lead/Lag compensation is very similar to PD/PI, or PID control

• The lead compensator plays the same role as the PD controller,

reshaping the root locus to improve the transient response

• Lag and PI compensation are similar and have the same response: to improve
the steady state accuracy of the closed-loop system

• Both PID and lead/lag compensation can be used successfully, and can be
combined
FINAL REMARKS

• Proportional action gives an output signal proportional to the size of the error.
Increasing the proportional feedback gain reduces steady-state errors, but high
gains almost always destabilize the system
• Integral action gives a signal which magnitude depends on the time the error
has been there. Integral control provides robust reduction in steady-state
errors, but often makes the system less stable
• Derivative action gives a signal proportional to the change in the Error. It gives
sort of “anticipatory” control .Derivative control usually increases damping
and improves stability, but has almost no effect on the steady state error
FINAL REMARKS….

• These three kinds of control combined from the classical PID controller
• PID can be implemented in Hardware and software
• The PI controller can be considered as Lag compensator, The PD controller
can be considered as lead compensator and PID same as Lag-Lead
compensator works to improve transient and steady state region
• Tuning of the controller is one of the limitations of PID controller
• Proportional and integral control modes are essential for most control loops,
while derivative is useful only in some cases
FINAL REMARKS…
• Designing and tuning a PID controller appears to be conceptually intuitive, but
can be hard in practice, if multiple (and often conflicting) objectives such
as short transient and high stability are to be achieved
• Control engineers usually prefer P-I controllers to control first order plants.
On the other hand, P-I-D control is vastly used to control two or higher order
plants
• Major reasons behind the popularity of P-I-D controller are its simplicity in
structure and the appilicability to variety of processes. Also, the controller can
be tuned for a process, even without detailed mathematical model of the
process
• The choice of P-D, P-I or P-I-D structure de pends on the type of the process
intended to be controlled.