CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Network Elements

Chapter 2 Network Theorem

Chapter 3 AC Fundamentals

Chapter 4 Resonance

Chapter 5 Transient Response of Simple DC Circuit

Chapter 6 Laplace Transform

Chapter 7 Network Function & Parameter

Chapter 8 Filter

2
 CHAPTER -1
NETWORK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION:

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements such as

resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage source etc. In electrical engineering, transfer of
energy takes place from one point to another, which requires interconnection of
electrical devices. Such interconnection is known as electric circuit and each component
of the circuit is known as an element.

EXAMPLE # Consider an electrical circuit as shown in

the figure. This electric circuit consists of four elements
a battery, a lamp, switch & connecting wires. Circuit and
network theorem is the study of the behaviour of the
circuit: Its behaviour tells us how does it respond to a
given input how do the interconnected elements and
devices in the circuit interact?

ELECTRIC CURRENT:
Electric current may be defined as the time rate of net motion of an
electric charge across a cross sectional boundary as shown in the figure given below. A
random motion of electrons in a metal does not constitute a current unless there is a net
transfer of charge with time i.e. electric current.

i = Rate of transfer of electric charge

= Quantity of electric charge transferred during a given time
duration/ Time duration

=


Coulomb is the practical as well as SI unit for measurement of electric

charge. Since current is the rate of flow of electric charge through conductor and
coulomb is the unit of electric charge, the current may be specified in coulombs per
second. In practice the ampere is used as the unit of current. Coulomb is the practical as
well as SI unit for measurement of electric charge. Since current is the rate of flow of
electric charge through conductor and coulomb is the unit of electric charge, the current
may be specified in coulombs per second. In practice the ampere is used as the unit of
current.

3
VOLTAGE:
The voltage is the potential difference between two points of a
conductor carrying a current of one ampere when the power dissipated between these
two points is equal to one watt. The practical unit of voltage is volt.

POWER:
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate at which it can perform
work. So Power = work done/ Time in seconds
  
P = = =vi
  
Absolute unit of power is watt. One watt is that power which is required to perform one
joule of work in one second. The practical unit of power is horse power (HP). This value
in metric system is 75kg meters per second and in British system is 550 Foot
Pounds/second. Therefore
1 HP (Metric) = 75 Kg meters per second= 735.5 watt
1 HP (British) = 550 Foot Pound/ second = 746 watt

ENERGY:
Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work.

 

The unit of energy in MKS system is joule and in SI system is KWH. A
system can have this energy in various forms, such as electrical, mechanical, heat,
chemical, atomic energy etc. Energy of one form can be transformed to other form, but
cannot be created nor be destroyed. If one form of energy disappeared, it reappears in
another form. This principle is known as law of conservation of energy.

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS/PARAMETERS:

1. RESISTANCE:
Resistance restricts the flow of electric current through the material. Unit
of Resistance(R) is Ohm. From Ohm’s law
R=V/I
When an electric current flows through any conductor, heat is generated due to collision
of free electrons with atoms. If I amp is the strength of current for potential difference V
volts across a conductor, the power observed by resistor is :
P=VI= (IR).I=   watts
Energy lost in the resistor in form of heat is then
  
E=  =   
=  t=
 x t

2. INDUCTANCE:
It opposes any change of magnitude or direction of electric current
passing through the conductor. Unit is Henry (H).When a current will flow through the
coils/Inductor an electromagnetic field is created. However in the event of any change
4
of flow on direction of current, the electromagnetic field also changes. This change of
field induces a voltage (V) across the coil & is given by

    ------ (1)
Where ‘i’ is current through the inductor.
Voltage across an inductor is zero when current is constant.
Hence an inductor acts like short circuit to dc.

Power absorbed by inductor


P=V x i=Li  watts. ------- (2)
Energy absorbed.
 
E=   = 
Li2 ------- (3)

From equation (2) & (3): The inductor can store finite amount of energy,
even the voltage across it may be nil. A pure inductor does not dissipate energy but can
only store it.

3. CAPACITANCE:
It is the property of capacitor, which have the capability to store electric
charge in its electric field established by the two polarities of charges on the two
electrodes of a capacitor.
The amount of charge store by capacitor is
q = cv
 
i= 

=>i=c 

Therefore if voltage across capacitor is constant, current through it is
zero. Hence capacitor acts like a open circuit to dc.

Power absorbed P=V.I= VC

 
Energy stored E=   = 
CV2
A capacitor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the current through it is zero. It
never dissipates energy.

TYPES OF ELEMENTS:
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ELEMENT:
An active element has capability to generating energy while passive
elements have not.
Ex: Active Element: Generators, Batteries, And Amplifiers.
Passive Element: Resistor, Inductor, capacitor.

BILATERAL AND UNILATERAL ELEMENT:

If the magnitude of current passing through the element is affected due to
change in the polarity of the applied voltage, the element is called unilateral element.
And if the current magnitude remains same, it is called as bilateral element.
Ex: Unilateral Element: - Diodes, Transistors.
Bilateral Element: - Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

5
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR ELEMENTS:
A linear element shows linear characteristics of voltage Vs current.
Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor are linear elements and their property does not change in
applied voltage on circuit current.
For non-linear elements the current passing through it does not change
linearly with the time as change in applied voltage at a particular frequency.
Ex: Semiconductor devices.
ENERGY SOURCES:
Independent Energy sources: The voltage & current sources whose values or
strength of voltage and current does not change by any variation in the connected
network are called independent sources.

Series connected independent

sources: Consider the series connection of two
voltage sources as shown in the figure. By KVL
the total voltage between the terminals is equal
to algebraic sum of individual sources i.e. the
voltage sources connected in series may be
replaced by a single voltage source whose
voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual sources.

Dependent Energy sources: When the strength of voltage and current changes
in the sources for any change in the connected network, they are called dependent
sources. There four different types of dependent sources
a) Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
b) Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
c) Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
d) Current controlled current source (CCCS)

6
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
The voltage and current sources are mutually transferable as shown in
the figure below.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW:
These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s law and are used for
solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by latter. Kirchhoff’s law is
of two types, Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Kirchhoff’s current law
is used when voltage is chosen as variable while Kirchhoff’ voltage law is used when
current is chosen as variable.

KCL: According to Kirchhoff’s current law the algebraic sum of currents at any
node of a circuit is zero. From the figure given below:

-I1-I2+I3-I4+I5=0
=>I1+I2+ I4=I3+I5
Hence:
Algebraic sum of currents entering a node =
Algebraic sum of current leaving a node.

Example1: Find the magnitude and direction of the unknown current as shown
in figure given I1= 10 A, I2= 6A, I5= 4A

Solution: Assume direction of current in the

network

(i) I1= I7= 10 A

(ii) I1= I2 + I4=> I4= I1- I2= 10- 6= 4 A
(iii) At node b: I2 - I3 - I5= 0
=> 6 - I3- 4=0 => I3= 2A
(iv) At node d: I4 + I3 - I6= 0
=>4 + 2 – I6 =0
=> I6 = 6 A

7
 Assume direction of all current are correct because of their positive
magnitude. Assume directions of unknown current are arbitrary and any direction can
be taken.

Example2: Find v and the

magnitude and direction of the unknown
currents in the branch xn, yn and zn as
shown in figure.

Solution:
At node y: 10 + Ix + Iz = Iy + 2
Ix – Iy + Iz= -8
     

+  +  = -8 [since Ix =  , Iy=
 , Iz=  ]
 
8.42 volt

Negative magnitude shows that n to be positive.


Therefore Ix = - 
= -1.684 A (i.e. from flowing current n to x)
 !
Iy = - = 4.21 A (ie Current flowing from n to y)


Iz = = -2.1 A (ie current flowing from n to z)


The circuit can be redrawn as given below

Example3: Find i1 and i2 as shown in figure

Solution: The circuit is redrawn in figure

According to KCL: i1 + i2 = 5 + 4 i2 ------------ (1)
i1- 3 i2 = 5 ------------ (2)

 
Here i1 = 
; i2 =


Therefore equation 2: V - 3  = 5
=> V = 12.5 volt
Therefore i1 = 12.5 A and i2 = 2.5 A

8
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:
This law can be stated as
“The algebraic sum of voltage in any
closed path of a network that is traversed in single
direction is zero.”
Explanation: According to KVL
V1 – IR1 – V2 – IR2 – IR3 = 0
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = V1 – V2
 
I=""#

CURRENT DIVISION RULE:

Two resistors are joined in parallel
across a voltage V. The current in each branch, as given
in ohm’s law is
I1=V/R1 and I2= V/ R2

Therefore I1/I2 = R2/ R1 = G1/ G2

Hence the division of current in the

branch of parallel circuit is directly proportional to the
conductance of the branches or inversely proportional to their resistances. We may also
express the branch currents in terms of the total circuit current thus:
Now I1 + I2 = I
=> I2 =I - I1
$ 
Therefore
= or I1 R1 = R2(I - I1 )
$ $ 
 
Therefore I1 = I
"
and I2 =I
"

Thus current division rule is stated as

“The current in any of the parallel branches is equal to the ratio of
the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, multiplied by the total current.”

Example4: A resistance of 10 ohm is connected in series

with two resistances each of 15 ohm arranged in parallel.
What resistance must be shunted across this parallel
combination so that the total current taken shall be 1.5 A
with 20 volt applied?
Solution: The circuit connected in figure
Drop across 10 ohm resister = 1.5 * 10=15V
Drop across parallel combination, VAB= 20-15=5V
Hence voltage across each parallel resistance is 5V.
I1= 5/15 = 1/3 A
I2= 5/15= 1/3 A
I3= 1.5-(1/3+1/3)= 5/6 A

Therefore I3R = 5 or (5/6) R = 5 or R=6 ohm

9
Example5: Calculate the value of different current for
the circuit shown in given figure.

Solution: Total current I = I1 + I2 + I3

Let the equivalent resistance be R.
Then V= I R
Also V = I1 R1
Therefore I R = I 1 R1
Or I 1= I R/R1 -------------------------------------- (1)
Now (1/R) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)


#
R=


"

#"
#



#
From equation 1: I 1=


"

#"
#




#
Similarly I2=


"

#"
#





I3 =


"

#"
#


VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE:

A voltage divider circuit is a series network which is used to feed other
networks with a number of different voltages and is derived from a single input voltage
source. Figure shows a simple voltage divider circuit which provide two output voltages
V1 and V2. Since no load is connected across the output terminals, it is called an
unloaded voltage divider. We may also express the branch voltages in terms of the total
circuit voltage thus:
Now V1 + V2 = V
=> V2 =V - V1
% 
Therefore
= or V1 R2 = R1 (V – V1)
% % 

 
Therefore V1 =  "
and V2 = V
"

Thus Voltage division rule is stated as

“The voltage across a resistor in series circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times the total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the
total resistance of the series elements.”

Example9: Find the value of different voltages that can be

obtained from a 12 V battery with the help of voltage divider
circuit of figure.
Solution:
R= R1 + R2 + R3 = 4 + 3+ 1 = 8 ohm
Drop across R1=VR1 = 12
& (4/8) = 6 volt
Drop across R2=VR2 = 12
& (3/8) = 4.5 volt
Drop across R3=VR3 = 12
& (1/8) = 1.5 volt

10
Example10: What are the output voltages of the unloaded voltage divider shown in
figure what is the direction of current Through AB?

Solution:
It may be remember that both V1 and V2 are with
respect to ground.
R= 6+ 4 + 2 = 12 ohm
Therefore
V1= Drop across R2= 24
& (4/12) = 8 volt
V2 = Drop across R3= -24
& (2/12) = -4 volt

It should be noted that point B is negative potential with respect to the

ground. Current flows from A to b i.e. from a point at a higher potential to appoint at a
lower potential.
Problem 1

11
Problem 2

12
Problem 3

13
14
 CHAPTER -2
NETWORK THEOREMS

INTRODUCTION
Electric circuits on network consist of a number of interconnected
single circuit elements. This circuit will generally contain at least one voltage on current
source. The arrangement of elements results in a new set of constraints between
currents and voltages. These new constraints and their corresponding equations added
to the current-voltage relationships of the individual elements provide the solution of the
network. There are different approaches for this but the solution is always unique.

STAR DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

Figure shows a Y (star or wage) connected resistance circuit. Let

the resister value of Y network are Ra, Rb and Rc. Figure shows a (delta)
connected resistances and Let the resistor values are Rab , Rbc and Rca .

Star Connected Delta Connected

It is possible to substitute a star connected system of resistance for a delta

system and vice-versa if proper values are given to the substituted resistances.

DELTA TO STAR CONVERSION

The two systems will be exactly equivalent if the resistance between any
pair of terminals A, B and C in figure for the star is the same as that between the
corresponding pair for the delta connection when the third terminal is isolated.
For the Y-network resistance between the terminal
A and B is Rab = Ra + Rb --------------------------------------eq. (i)
For the network resistance between the terminals AB is
Rab = Rab (Rac + Rbc)

= Rab (Rac+Rbc) --------------------------------------eq. (ii)

Rab+Rac+Rbc
Hence Ra + Rb = Rab (Rac+Rbc) __________________________________eq. (iii)
Rab+Rac+Rbc

15
 Simalarly for Y-network resistance between terminal B and C is
Rbc = Rb+Rc
For the network resistance between terminal B and C is
Rbc = Rbc (Rab+Rac)
Rb+Rc = Rbc (Rab+Rac) _________________________________eq. (iv)
Rbc+Rab+Rac
Similarly we can find Rac between terminal A and C is
Ra+Rc = Rac (Rab+Rbc) __________________________________eq. (v)
Rac+Rab+Rac
Subtracting eq.(v) from the sum of eq.(iii) and eq.(iv) yields
2 Rb = 2 Rab . Rbc
Rab+Rbc+Rca
Rb = Rab . Rbc
Rab+Rbc+Rca
Subtracting eq.(iv) from the sum of eq.(iii) & eq.(v) yields
2 Ra = 2 Rab . Rac
Rab+Rbc+Rac
Ra = Rab . Rac
Rab+Rbc+Rac
Similarly subtracting eq.(iii) from the sum of eq.(iv) and eq.(v) yields
2 Rc = 2. Rbc . Rca
Rab+Rbc+Rca
Rc = Rbc . Rca
Rab+Rbc+Rca

Therefore, the equivalent impedance of each arm of the star is given by the
product of the impedance of the two delta sides that meet at its ends divided by the sum of
there delta impedance

STAR TO DELTA CONVERSION

Similarly we can find conversion formula for Y to as

Rab = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Rc
Rbc = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Ra
Rca = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Rb

16
SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS
In the circuit analysis, a circuit with either voltage source or current
sources is preferred. Sometimes a circuit may have both i.e. voltage source & current
source. In that case it is convenient to transform voltage source to equivalent current
source and current source to equivalent voltage source .

(Transformation of Voltage source to (current source to an equivalent

an equivalent current source) voltage source)

NODE ANALYSIS & MESH ANALYSIS

Two methods one Node analysis and the other mesh analysis are used to
analyse a circuit depending on the arrangement and types of elements in the circuit.
Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Mesh analysis is based on
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

NODAL ANALYSIS
Let us consider a circuit shown in fig 2.2 with four
nodes. A convenient way of defining voltages for any network is
the set of node voltages.
One node i.e. 4 (generally the node at the
bottom)is marked as reference node with ground and other
nodes are associated with a voltage. The reference node also can be called as Ground
Node. In fig 2.2, the voltages V1, V2, V3 are called Node Voltages because they represent
the potential differences between the nodes 1,2 & 3 and reference node respectively.
That is the voltage of each of the non-reference
nodes with respect to the reference node is defined
as a node voltage.
Consider the circuit in figure

i1 = V1 – V2 , i5 = V1 – V3
R1 R5
Now applying KCL at node 1, the sum of currents
leaving is zero.
Therefore i1+i5 –i = 0

17
 i = V1-V2 + V1-V3 _______________________________ eq. (1)
R1 R5

Similarly at node 2 -i1= V2 – V1 , i2 = V2 , i3 = V2 – V3

R1 R2 R3
V2 – V1 + V2 –V3 + V2 = 0 _________________________________eq.(2)
R1 R3 R2
At Node 3 Sum of currents leaving are
-i3 = V3-V2 , i4 = V3 , -i5 = V3 – V1
R3 R4 R5

V3 – V2 + V3 + V3- V1 ________________________eq. (3)

R3 R4 R5
All the above these equation can be solved to determine the individual
node voltages V1, V2& V3.
Example 1
Find the node voltages V1 and V2 for the
circuit at figure.
Solution At node 1 apply KCL sum of all
the current leaving the node (1) is zero current leaving
node 1 are V1, V1-V2 and -2A (2A is entering)
10 15
V1 + V1- V2_ -2 = 0
10 15
  

V1 +) – 
=2
5V1 – 2V2 = 60 --------------------------------------eq. (1)
  
Similarly At node 2 current leaving are , and -4A
 
  

+ 
-4 = 0
4V2 – V1 = 60 __________________________________eq. (2)
Solving the above two equations (1) & (2)
We get V1 = 20V, V2 = 20V

Example 2
Find V1, V2 and V3 for the circuit in figure.
Solution
At node 1
 #
V1 –V2 + +3=0

3V1-2V2-V3 = -6 ______________________eq. (1)
At node 2
  #
V2-V1 + # +  = 0

-12V1 + 19V2 -3V3 = 0 _______________________eq.(2)

18
 At node 3
#  # # 

+ 
+ 
=7
-10V1- 5V2 +19V3 = 140 ______________________________eq. (3)

By solving we get V1 = 5.238V, V2 = 5.12V & V3 = 11.47V

Example 3
Find the node voltage V1& V2

Solution
To write node equation treat node 1 and 2
and the voltage source together as a Sort of Super node
and apply KCL to both nodes at the same time. The
super node is individual by dotted line.
Applying KCL, we get
  
-1+ + + = 0 ________________________________eq. (1)
  
And from voltage source V1 – 2 = V2 ________________________________eq. (2)
Now we can solve for V1 and V2 using both equations.

MESH ANALYSIS
Mesh analysis is restricted to the category called Planar Circuit whereas
nodal analysis can applied to any electrical circuits. A planer circuit is a circuit if the
diagram of the circuit can be drawn on a plane surface without crossover. Example of
planner and non-planar circuit are shown in fig (2.7).

Figure depicts a circuit comprising two meshes.

They are
Mesh 1: V5 → R1 → R2 → V3
Mesh 2: R3 → R4 → R2 → R3
The two mesh currents are labeled as i1 and i2 flowing in clockwise
direction. Now we will apply KVL around each mesh.

19
 For mesh 1
i1R1 + (i1-i2) R2 = V5 ___________________________eq. 1
For mesh 2
i2R3 + i2R4 + R2 (i2-i1) = 0 ___________________________eq. 2

Eq.(1) & (2) can be rewritten as

(R1+R2)i1 – R2i2 = V5 ______________________________eq.3
-R2i1 + (R2+R3+R4) i2 = 0
Finally the two equations can be put in matrix form
( ) * * .( /
' - ' -= ' -
* * ) + ) , .* 0

Which can be solved for i1 and i2.

Examples 4 find the mesh current i1 and i2 for the circuit shown in figure.

For first mesh 2i1+3(i1 – i2) = 9 ______________eq.1

4i2-5+3(i2-i1) =0 ______________eq.2
Equation can be rewritten as
5i1 -3i2 = 9 ______________eq.3
-3i1+7i2 = 5 ______________eq.4
By solving i1 = 3A, i2 = 2A

Example 5
Determine the voltage drop across 3Ω resister using mesh analysis in figure.

SUPERMESH
When a current source is common to two meshes we use the concept of
super mesh to analysis the circuit using mesh current method. A super mesh is a larger
mesh created from two meshes that have a current source as common element. A super
mesh encloses more than one mesh for each common current source between two
meshes, the number of meshes reduce by one, thus reading the number of mesh

20
Solution to Example 6
The 2A current source is common to mesh 2 & 3. So we create a super
mesh as shown in dotted line.
For super mesh
6i3 + 3i2 + 5(i2-i1)-8= 0
⇒ -5i1 + 8i2 + 6i3 = 8 _______________________eq. 1

For mesh 1
-12+8+5(i1-i2) = 0
⇒ 5i1 – 5i2 = 4 _________________________eq.2

From current source i2-i3 = 2

By solving we get i2 = 2.664
Voltage across 3Ω resistor = 2.66×3 = 8v.

Example 7
Use node analysis to find V1, V2, V3 & i1

Solution
Applying KCL at node 1
We get
   #
+ =2 _____________________________eq. 1
 
Applying KCL at node 2
  

+  +8=0 ______________________________eq.2
Applying KCL at node 3
# # 
+ =8 _______________________________eq.3
 
By solving all these equations we can get V1= 16v, V2= -24v, V3 = 16v, i1 = 0A

Examples 8
Find the voltage V2 using mesh analysis.

Solution
Applying KVL for super mesh
30i1+20(05+i1)+10=0
⇒ 50i1 = -20

⇒ i1 = - = - 0.4A, V2 = 20(i1+0.5)
= 20×0.1 = 2v

21
Superposition Theorem
In a linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources,
the voltage across or current in any branch is algebraic sum of individual voltages or
currents produced by each independent sources acting separately with all the
independent sources set equal to zero.
Procedure to solve the circuit using superposition theorem
1. Select only one source and replace all other sources with
their internal resistance. If the source is an ideal current
source replace it by open circuit. If the source is an ideal
voltage source, replace it by short circuit.
2. Find the current and its direction through the desired
branch.
3. Add all the branch currents to obtain the actual branch
current.

Examples 9
Find the current through 2Ω register using
superposition theorem.

Solution
First we find the contribution to I due to 5V
source by replacing 2A current source with open-circuit.
Applying KCL for the circuit in figure.

   
#
++1=0
 
V = # v, I1 = 1 Amp
Next we find the contributions I2 due to 2A current source
by replacing the voltage source by short-circuit.


I2 = 2× = 1Amp

 
Total current flowing through the 2Ω resistor = I1+I2 = 1+1 = 1
Amp

22
Limitation of Super-position Theorem
1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of only dependent sources.
2. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non-linear elements.
3. Not applicable for calculation of power, since power is potential is propositional
to the sequence of current or voltage.
4. Not useful to the circuits consisting of less than two independent sources.

Example 10
Find current I using Superposition theorem for the circuit in the figure.

Solution:
The circuit has three voltage sources. First we find the contribution to I1
due to 2V. Therefore short-circuit the remaining two voltage sources as shown in figure.

  
I1 = =
2 = A
" 1 
3

  
I1 =  × =  A

When 4V acting as shown in figure

 
I1 = =A
2
"
3

  
I2 =  × =  A

When 3V is acting alone as shown in figure

#
I3 = - Amp

When all the sources are acting together total
current will be
  # " #
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = + - = = 0Amp
   

23
Example 11
Find current Ia
Solution: Let us assume that only 12V is acting done and current
through it ia1, open circuit 4A and 1A current source and short-circuit the 6V voltage
source as in the figure.

 
Ia1 = - 4
=- A
#

When 4A current source is acting alone as shown in figure.

&1  
Ia2 = 4
=
4
= A
#

When 1A is acting alone as shown in figure.

# 
Ia3 = 1× = A
4 #

When 6V is acting alone as in figure

1 
Ia4 = = - A
4 #

When all the sources are acting total current will be

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia3 + Ia4
    "" 
=-#+#+#-#= #
#
=#

= 1amp
Ia = 1A

APPLICATION OF SUPER-POSITION THEOREM

The super-position theorem is applicable for any linear circuit having time
varying or time invariant elements. It is useful in circuit analysis for finding current &
voltage when the circuit has a large number of independent sources.

24
LIMITATION OF SUPER-POSITION
SUPER THEOREM
1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of dependent sources.
2. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non linear elements like
diode, transistor etc.
3. Not applicable for calculation of power.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear active two terminal network
containing resistance and voltage sources or current sources can be replaced by a single
voltage sources Vth in series with single resistance Rth. The Thevenin equivalent voltage
Vth is the open circuit
rcuit voltage at the network terminal and the Thevenin resistance Rth is
the resistance between the network terminals when all the sources are replaced with
their internal resistance.
Fig (a) shows a linear network containing resistance, voltage sources or
current sources with output terminal AB using Thevenin’s theorem the linear network
can be replaced by single voltage source Vth in series with a single resistor Rth as shown
in fig(b). Now any resistor can be corrected between the terminal AB and current curre
through it can be obtained easily.
Procedure to find the current through a branch using Thevenin’s Theorem.

1. Remove the branch through which current is to be found and mark the terminal
AB.
2. Calculate the open circuit voltage Vth between the terminal AB.
3. Replace the independent sources with their internal resistance. (if the internal
resistances are zero, then voltage source should be short-circuited
short circuited and current
source should be open-circuited)
open
4. Calculate Rth between the terminal AB.
5. Correct thevenin’s voltage
voltage sources in series with Thevenin resistance with output
terminal AB.
6. Correct the removed resistance between AB and find the current through it.

Example
Find VTH, RTHand the load current
flowing through and load voltage across the load
resistor in figure by using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution
Step 1
Open the 5kΩ load resistor figure.
Step 2
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit
Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH)
figure. We have already removed the load resistor from figure 1, so the circuit became an
open circuit as shown in fig 2. Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since
25
3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ12k and 4kΩ resistors
as this is a series circuit because current will not
flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.
So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ)Ω) will appear across the
4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not
flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open
circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k
resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear
across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB
terminals. So,

VTH = 12V

Step 3
Open Current Sources and Short
Voltage Sources figure.

Step 4
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit
Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)
We have Reduced the 48V DC source
to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short in step
(3), as shown in figure () We can see that 8kΩ
resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ
resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ
[(4k x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
3k

RTH = 11kΩ

Step 5
Connect the RTHin series with Voltage
Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in figure i.e. Thevenin circuit with load
resistor.

26
Step 6
Now apply the last step i.e. calculate the
total load current & load voltage as shown in figure.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)
= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) →
= 12/16kΩ
12/16k
IL = 0.75mA
And
VL = ILx RL
VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL = 3.75V

NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s theorem states that any linear active two terminal network
contains resistance and voltage source or current source can be replaced by single
current source or current source can be replaced by single current source IN in parallel
with a single resistance RN. The Norton’s equivalent current IN is the state circuit current
through the terminals AB and resistance RN is the resistance between the network
terminals when
hen all the sources are replaced with internal resistances.
Procedure to find the current through a branch using Norton’s theorem.
1. Remove the branch through which current is to be found and mark terminal AB.
2. Short-circuit
circuit the terminal AB and find current through
through it and denote it as ISC.
3. Replace the independent sources with their internal resistances (if internal
resistances are zero then voltage source should be short circuited and current
sources should be open-circulated).
open
4. Calculate RN between the terminals
termina AB.
5. Connect the short-circuit
circuit current (Norton’s) In in parallel with RN with output
terminal AB.
Correct the removed branch between terminals AB and find current.
Example
Find the current in RL using Norton’s Theorem

27
 After Norton conversion . . .

Remember that
a current source is a component
whose job is to provide a constant
amount of current, outputting as
much or as little voltage necessary
to maintain that constant current.

As with Thevenin's
Theorem, everything in the original
circuit except the load resistance has
been reduced to an equivalent circuit
that is simpler to analyze. Also similar
to Thevenin's Theorem are the steps
used in Norton's Theorem to
calculate the Norton source current (INorton) and Norton resistance (RNorton).

As before, the first step is to identify the load resistance and remove
remo it
from the original circuit.

Then, to find the

Norton current (for the current
source in the Norton equivalent
circuit), place a direct wire (short)
(shor
connection between the load points
and determine the resultant current.
Note that this step is exactly
opposite the respective step in Thevenin's Theorem, where we replaced the load
resistor
tor with a break (open circuit).

With zero voltage dropped

between
een the load resistor connection
points, the current through R1 is strictly a
function of B1's voltage and R1's resistance:
7 amps (I=E/R). Likewise, the current
through R3 is now strictly a function of B2's
voltage and R3's resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R).

28
The total current through the short between the load connection points is the sum of
these two currents: 7 amps + 7 amps = 14 amps. This figure of 14 amps becomes the
Norton source current (INorton) in our equivalent circuit.

Current through load of 2 Ω resistor = 14 X .8 /2.8 = 4 Amp.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In a linear bilateral network containing an independent voltage
source in series with resistance RS delivers maximum power to the load resistance RL
when RL=RS
Let us consider a circuit shown in fig(a)
5
Current I= 5"6
5
Power delivered to the load PL = I2RL = (5"6)2 RL
To find the value of RL for optimum power transfer differentiate PL with respect to RL and
equal to 2nd
76

6
= VS2[ 5"6! 65"6!
5"6!
]= 0
⇒ (RS +RL)X = 2 RL (RS/+RL)
















⇒RS + RL = 2RL

⇒ RS = RL

Maximum power will be = (VS/2RL)2 × RL = VS2/4RL

Example
Find the value of RL for the given network below
that the power is maximum? And also find the Max Power
through load-resistance RL by using maximum power transfer
theorem?

Solution
For the above network,
we are going to find-out the value of
unknown resistance called “RL”. In
previous post, I already show that when
power is maximum through load-
resistance is equals to the equivalent
resistance between two ends of load-
resistance after removing.
So, for finding load-
resistance RL. We have to find-out the
equivalent resistance like that for this
circuit.

29
 Now, For finding Maximum Power through
load-resistance we have to find-out the value of Vo.c. Here,
Vo.c is known as voltage between open circuits. So, steps are
For this circuit using Mesh-analysis. We get

Applying Kvl in loop 1st:-

6-6I1-8I1+8I2=0
-14I1+8I2=-6 ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (1)
Again, Applying Kvl in loop 2nd:-
-8I2-5I2-12I2+8I1=0
8I1-25I2=0 ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (2)
On solving,eqn (1) & eqn (2), We get
I1 = 0.524 A
I2 = 0.167 A
Now, From the circuit Vo.c is
VA-5I2- VB = 0
Vo.c/ VAB= 5I2 = 5X0.167 = 0.835v
So, the maximum power through the RL is given by:-

30
Milliman’s Theorem
This theorem states that Any number of current sources in parallel may be
replaced by a single current source whose current is the algebraic sum of individual
source currents and source resistance is the parallel combination of individual source
resistance.
The alternative statement of Milliman’s theorem is Any number of voltage
source V1, V2, V3, ----------Vn having source resistance R1, R2, R3 ----------------Rn
respectively connected in parallel may be replaced y a single voltage source Vn and
resistance Rn where
  
Vn = where G1 = , G2 = etc.
9"9: ;9<  
The above two statements are identical because a voltage source can be
connected in to current source and vice-versa.
Reciprocity Theorem
The Reciprocity theorem states that if the source voltage and zero
resistance ammeters are integrated, the magnitude of the current through the ammeter
will be the same. In lead the principle states that in a linear positive network, supply
voltage V and current I are mutually transferable. The ratio of V and I is called the
transfer resistance.
Problem 1

31
Problem 2

32
Problem 3

33
Problem 4

34
Problem 5

35
Problem 6

36
 CHAPTER-3
AC FUNDAMENTAL & AC CIRCUIT
WHAT IS ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)

Alternating current is the current which constantly changes in amplitude,

and reverses direction at regular intervals. We know that direct current flows only in
one direction, and that the amplitude of current is determined by the number of
electrons flowing past a point in a circuit in one second. If, for example, a coulomb of
electrons moves past a point in a wire in one second and all of the electrons are moving
in the same direction, the amplitude of direct current in the wire is one ampere.
Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one direction past a point in the wire in
half a second, then reverses direction and moves past the same point in the opposite
direction during the next half-second, a total of one coulomb of electrons passes the
point in one second. The amplitude of the alternating current is one ampere.

PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

An A.C. source of electrical power
+
changes constantly in amplitude and the
changes are so regular Alternating voltage and 0
current have a number of properties associated –
with any such waveform. These basic properties Time
include the following list:

Frequency
One of the most important properties of any regular waveform identifies
the number of complete cycles it goes through in a fixed period of time. For standard
measurements, the period of time is one second, so the frequency of the wave is
commonly measured in cycles per second (cycles/sec) and, in normal usage, is
expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is represented in mathematical equations by the
letter ‘f ’.

Period
Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to complete
one cycle of the waveform, rather than the number of cycles per second of time. This is
logically the reciprocal of frequency

Wavelength
Because an A.C. wave moves physically as well as changing in time,
sometimes we need to know how far it moves in one cycle of the wave, rather than how
long that cycle takes to complete. This of course depends on how fast the wave is moving
as well. The Greek letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions. And, λ= c/f. As shown in the figure to the above, wavelength can be
measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent point in the next cycle.
Wavelength is very similar to period as discussed above, except that wavelength is
measured in distance per cycle while period is measured in time per cycle.

37
Amplitude
Mathematically, the amplitude of a sine wave is the value of that sine wave
at its peak. This is the maximum value, positive or negative, that it can attain. However,
when we speak of an A.C. power system, it is more useful to refer to the effective voltage
or current.

THE SINE WAVE

In discussing alternating current and voltage, you will often find it
necessary to express the current and voltage in terms of maximum or peak values, peak-
to-peak values, effective values, average values, Voltage and
or instantaneous values. Each of these values current in phase
has a different meaning and is used to describe VI m V
a different amount of current or voltage. m
I

Peak Value[Ip] Time

Refer to figure, it is the maximum
value of voltage [Vp] or Current [Ip]. The peak
value applies to both positive and negative Fig. 1.6
values of the cycle.
Peak-Peak value [Ip-p]
During each complete cycle of ac there are always two maximum or peak
values, one for the positive half-cycle and the other for the negative half-cycle. The
difference between the peak positive value and the peak negative value is called the
peak-to-peak value of the sine wave. This value is twice the
maximum or peak value of the sine wave and is sometimes
Peak to
used for measurement of ac voltages. peak
Note the difference between peak and peak value
to-peak values in the figure. Usually alternating voltage and
current are expressed in effective values rather than in
Peak
peak-to-peak values. value

INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The instantaneous value of an alternating voltage or current is the value of
voltage or current at one particular instant. The value may be zero if the particular
instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity of the voltage is changing. It may also
be the same as the peak value, if the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the
voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing.
There are actually an infinite number of instantaneous values between
zero and the peak value.

AVERAGE VALUE
The average value of an alternating current or voltage is the average of all
the instantaneous values during one alternation. Since the voltage increases from zero to
peak value and decreases back to zero during one alternation, the average value must be
some value between those two limits.

38
 The average value of A.C. is the average over one complete cycle and is
clearly zero, because there are alternately equal positive and negative half cycles.

2
Average voltage = × peakvalue
π
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE
Circuit currents and voltage in A.C. circuits are generally stated as root-
mean-square or rms values rather than by quoting the maximum values. The root-
mean-square for a current is defined as the value of steady state current which when
flowing through a resistor for a given time produces the same amount of hit as
generated by the alternating current when passed through the same resistor for the
same time.

1 2
T
Im
I rms =
T ∫0
I rms = i dt
2
Vrms
Form Factor = = 1.11
Vave
It is the ratio of RMS value to average vale of voltage or current.

SINE WAVES IN PHASE

When a sine wave of voltage is applied to a pure resistance, the resulting
current is also a sine wave. This follows Ohm’s law which states that current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage. To be in phase, the two sine waves must go through
their maximum and minimum points at the same time and in the same direction as
shown in the figure.

Voltage wave E1 E2

Current wave
90_
270_ 360_
360_ Time
180_
0_ 90_ 270_
0_ 90_ 180_ Time
axis
Time

39
Sine Waves Out of Phase
Figure shows voltage wave E1 which is considered to start at 0° (time
one). As voltage wave E1 reaches its positive peak, voltage wave E2 starts its rise (time
two). Since these voltage waves do not go through their maximum and minimum points
at the same instant of time, a phase difference exists between the two waves. The two
waves are said to be out of phase. For the two waves in figure, the phase difference is
90°.

PHASORS
In an a.c. circuit, the e.m.f. or current vary sinusoidally wih time and may
be mathematically represented as
E = E0 sin ωt
and I = I0 sin (ωt ± θ)
Where θ is the phase angle between alternating e.m.f. and current.
Displacement of S.H.M. also varies sinusoidally with time i.e.
Y = A sin ωt
And its instantaneous value is equal to the projection of the amplitude A
on Y-axis. Therefore,instantaneous values of alternating e.m.f. (E) and current (I) may be
considered as the projections of e.m.f. amplitude (E0) and current amplitude (I0)
respectively. The quantities, such as alternating e.m.f. and alternating current are called
phasor. Thus a phasor is a quantity which varies sinusoidally with time and represented
as the projection of rotating vector.

PHASOR DIAGRAM
The generator at the power station which produces our A.C. mains rotates
through 360 degrees to produce one cycle of the sine wave form which makes up the
supply.
In the next diagram there are two sine waves.
They are out of phase because they do not start from zero at the same time.
To be in phase they must start at the same time.
The waveform A starts before B and is LEADING by 90 degrees.

+
+

0_ 90_ 180_ 270_ 360_ AB

–
–

Waveform B is LAGGING A by 90 degrees.

The next left hand diagram, known as a PHASOR DIAGRAM, shows this in another way.

40
 It is sometimes helpful to treat the phase as if it defines a vector in a
plane. The usual reference for zero phase is taken to be the positive x-axis and is
associated with the resistor since the voltage and current associated with the resistor
are in phase. The length of the phasor is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity
represented, and its angle represents its phase relative to that of the current through
the resistor. The phasor diagram for the RLC series circuit shows the main features.

VL
VL VC VL XL XC

V Z
VR
I VR φ φ
VR
VC R

Note that the phase angle, the difference in phase between the voltage and
the current in an A.C. circuit, is the phase angle associated with the impedance Z of the
circuit.

AC SERIES CIRCUIT
RESISTANCE AC CIRCUIT
A resistance R connected to an ac source is shown. Its voltage can be
written as
et = Etm sin wt
i = I m sin wt

Etm
i= sin wt = I m sin wt
R

The above two equations depict that voltage and current in resistive
network are in phase. Figure shows the voltage and current waveform and phasor
diagram.

41
POWER IN RESISTIVE NETWORK
The instantaneous power
curve is plotted in figure it is seen that
the power curve is always positive in
case of resistive network and equal to

 1 − cos 2 wt  Etm I m Etm I m

p = et × i = Etm I m sin 2 wt = Etm I m  = − × cos 2 wt
 2  2 2

The above power equation shows that the power has two components, one is
E I E I
constant i.e. tm m & an ac component tm m cos 2wt . The average value of ac component
2 2
E I E I
in one cycle is zero. Therefore Average power p = tm m = tm × m = Et I
2 2 2

Inductance AC Circuit
Figure shows an inductance
L connected to an ac supply which voltage
is given by v = ET m sin wt , i=
 π
I m sin  wt − 
 2

The above equation shows

ET m
that current lags the applied voltage by 90
Where I m =, the quantity wL controls the
wL
current inductor and this quantity wL is known as inductive reactance denoted X L
.Hence X L = wL

POWER IN INDUCTIVE NETWORK

The instantaneous power in a purely inductive network is

 π
p = eT × i = ET m sin wt × I m sin  wt − 
 2
= − ET m I m sin [Link] wt
− ET m I m sin 2 wt
=
2
The average power in a pure inductor during a cycle is zero.

42
CAPACITANCE IN AC CIRCUIT
Figure shows a capacitor C connected to an ac source equation of voltage &
current are given below

 π
v = Vm sin wt , I m sin  wt + 
 2

Vm 1
Equation shows that current leads voltage by 90
and I m = Where is known as
1 wC
wC
capacitive reactance denoted as X C . Its unit is ohm.

POWER IN CAPACITIVE NETWORK

The instantaneous power in a purely capacitive network is
 π
p = v × i = Vm sin wt × I m sin  wt + 
 2
Vm I m sin 2 wt
=
2
The average power in a pure capacitive network is zero.

SERIES RL NETWORK

Figure shows a resistor (R) and inductor (L) series network with its phasor
diagram and impedance diagram. As discussed earlier E R is in phase with I and E L leads

I by 90
.

43
 ET = EL + ER = I ( R + jX L )
Hence ⇒ IZ = I ( R + jX L )
⇒ Z = ( R + jX L ) = R + jwL

Where magnitude of Z = R 2 + X L 2

The quantities R, X L , Z are shown in the impedence diagram.

POWER IN SERIES RL NETWORK

The average power in RL series circuit is
E I E I
p = T m m cos θ = T m . m cos θ = ET I cos θ
2 2 2

R ET E
ET I cos θ is known as active power. p = ET I cos θ = ET I = .IR = I 2 R ∵ I = T
Z Z Z

Thus the active power in ac circuit represents the power dissipated across
resistance. It is measured in watt. The product of RMS voltage & current i.e. VI is known
as apparent power and measured in volt ampere. The ration of active power to apparent
power equals to cos θ where θ is the phase angle between V & I. The term cos θ is called

44
power factor of the circuit. The power factor is zero in case of pure inductive or
capacitive network. The power factor of a circuit may be either leading or lagging. A
leading power factor means that the current in the circuit leads the voltage and lagging
power factor means the current lags the voltage. The power factor of a circuit is the ratio
of resistance to impedence .
The instantaneous power across inductor of capacitor is known as reactive
power. That is Q = I 2 X L = I 2 wL = I 2 Z sin θ = ET I sin θ

The reactive power does not contribute anything to the net energy transfer
from source to load. Yet it constitutes a loading of the equipment.
The apparent power VI, active power VI cos θ and reactive power VI sin θ
is also applicable in this case too. Current in RC circuit leads the apply voltage and
therefore the power factor is leading.
SERIES RC NETWORK
Figure shows a
series RC network

I  J 
ET = RI − j = IR− 
wC  wC 
 J  j
⇒ IZ = I  R − ⇒ Z = R− = R − jX C
 wC  wC
1
X C = Capacitive Re ac tan ce =
wC
1
magnitudeofZ = R 2 +
w C2
2

SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT

45
 Consider a series R-L-C
R C circuit as shown in the figure. The voltage VR is in
phase with the current, the voltage VL leads the current by 90
and the voltage VC lags the
current by 90
. The total impedence
Z = Z R + Z L + ZC
= R + j ( X L − XC )

We can find that the reactance is positive if X L ≻ X C and negative if

X C ≻ X L . If X L ≻ X C the circuit behaves like an R-L
R L series circuit and current lags
voltage by an angle θ if X C ≻ X L the circuit behaves as an R-C
C series circuit and current
leads the applied voltage by angle θ . The phasor diagram for both cases are shown.
The magnitude of the impedence is given by

Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2 vs
i=
z
1
wL −
θ = tan −1 wC
R

46
 CHAPTER-4

RESONANCE
Consider a series R-L-C circuit
as shown in the figure. The impedence of the
circuit is given by

Z = R + j ( X L − XC )

1
where X L is inductive reactance = wL and X C = capacitive reactance = .
wC

As frequency of the supply is increased X L increases and X C decreases. At

one particular frequency X L = X C and the total reactance of the circuit become zero. At
this particular frequency the impedence is resitive and voltage & current are in phase.
This phenomenon is known as resonance.
XL = XC
1
⇒ 2π f 0 L =
2π f 0C
1
⇒ f0 =
2π LC
47
 f 0 is called as frequency of resonance. Impedence Z of the R-L-C series
V
circuit is equal to R at resonance and current is equal to .
R

Q Factor
The ratio of capacitor voltage or inductor voltage at resonant frequency to
supply voltage is a measure of quality of a resonance circuit. This term is known as
quality factor (Q factor).
At the frequency of the resonance ( f 0 )

V V
VL = IX L =XL ∵I =
R R
V X 2π f 0 L
Q= L = L =
V R R
V X 1
= C = C =
V R 2π f 0 RC

Bandwidth
At resonant frequency current in the
R-L-C series circuit is maximum. Let us define two
frequencies w1 & w2 at which current is 707I max .
The frequency w1 & w2 are called half power
frequency.
Bandwidth = w2 − w1

Where w2 = upper half power frequency, w1 = lower half power frequency.

Relationship between Q and Bandwidth of R-L-C series circuit

Bandwidth = w2 − w1

At w = w1 , the reactance is capacity as X C ≻ X L

1
Hence − w1 L = R …………………….. eq.1
w1C

At w = w2 the reactance is inductive as X L ≻ X C

1
Hence w2 L − = R ……………………… eq. 2
w2C

From equation1 we get w12 LC + w1 RC − 1 = 0

48
 R 1
Dividing by LC we get w12 + w1 − =0
L LC

−R R2 1
w1 = ± 2
+
2L 4 L LC

Similarly from equation 2

R 1
w2 2 − w2 − =0
L LC
R R2 1
w2 = ± 2
+
2L 4 L LC
Hence bandwidth
R R R
w2 − w1 = + =
2L 2L L
R
⇒ 2π ( f 2 − f1 ) =
L
R f
⇒ f 2 − f1 = = 0
2π L Q
f0 w
⇒Q= = 0
f 2 − f1 BW

The Parallel Resonance Circuit

In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the same as the
series resonance circuit we looked at in the previous tutorial. Both are 3-element
networks that contain two reactive components making them a second-order circuit,
both are influenced by variations in the supply frequency and both have a frequency
point where their two reactive components cancel each other out influencing the
characteristics of the circuit. Both circuits have a resonant frequency point.

The difference this time however, is that a parallel resonance circuit is

influenced by the currents flowing through each parallel branch within the
parallel LC tank circuit. A tank circuit is a parallel combination of L and C that is used in
filter networks to either select or reject AC frequencies. Consider the parallel RLC circuit
below.

49
 Let us define what we already know about parallel RLC circuits.

A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a

capacitance, C will produce parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when
the resultant current through the parallel combination is in phase with the supply
voltage. At resonance there will be a large circulating current between the inductor and
the capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits produce current
resonance.
A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of
the inductor and the electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being
transferred back and forth between the inductor and the capacitor which results in zero
current and energy being drawn from the supply. This is because the corresponding
instantaneous values of IL and IC will always be equal and opposite and therefore the
current drawn from the supply is the vector addition of these two currents and the
current flowing in IR.
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know that the supply
voltage is common for all branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector. Each
parallel branch must be treated separately as with series circuits so that the total supply
current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch
currents. Then there are two methods available to us in the analysis of parallel
resonance circuits. We can calculate the current in each branch and then add together
or calculate the admittance of each branch to find the total current.
We know from the previous series resonance tutorial that resonance
takes place when VL = -VC and this situation occurs when the two reactance are
equal, XL = XC. The admittance of a parallel circuit is given as:

50
 Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary parts of Y become zero.
Then:

Notice that at resonance the parallel circuit produces the same equation
as for the series resonance circuit. Therefore, it makes no difference if the inductor or
capacitor is connected in parallel or series. Also at resonance the parallel LC tank circuit
acts like an open circuit with the circuit current being determined by the
resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a parallel resonance circuit at resonance
becomes just the value of the resistance in the circuit and Z = R as shown.

Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

Note that if the parallel circuit’s
impedance is at its maximum at resonance then
consequently, the circuit’s admittance must be at its
minimum and one of the characteristics of a parallel
resonance circuit is that admittance is very low limiting the
circuits current. Unlike the series resonance circuit, the
resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping
effect on the circuit’s bandwidth making the circuit
less selective.

51
 Also, since
ince the circuit current is constant for any value of impedance,
impedance Z,
the voltage across a parallel resonance circuit will have the same shape as the total
impedance and for a parallel circuit the voltage waveform is generally taken from across
the capacitor.
We now know that at the resonant frequency,
frequency ƒr the admittance of the
circuit is at its minimum and is equal to the conductance, G given by 1/R because in a
parallel resonance circuit the imaginary part of admittance, i.e. the susceptance, B is
zero because BL = BC as shown.

Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Parallel Resonance Circuit

The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the
same way as for the series resonance circuit. The upper and lower cut-off
cut frequencies
given as: ƒupper and ƒlower respectively denote the half-power
half power frequencies where the
power dissipated in the circuit is half of the full power dissipated at the resonant
frequency 0.5( I2 R ) which gives us the same -3dB
3dB points at a current value that is equal
to 70.7% of its maximum resonant value, ( 0.707 x I )2 R.
As with the series circuit, if the resonant frequency remains constant, an
increase in the quality factor,Q
factor, will cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a
decrease in the quality factor will cause an increase in the bandwidth as defined by: BW
= ƒr /Q or BW = ƒ2 - ƒ2.
Also changing the ratio between the inductor, L and the capacitor, C, or
the value of the resistance, R the bandwidth and therefore the frequency response of the
circuit will be changed for a fixed resonant frequency. This technique is used extensively
in tuning circuits for radio and television transmitters and receivers.
The selectivity or Q-factor for a parallel resonance circuit is generally
defined as the ratio of the circulating branch currents to the supply current and is given
as:

Note that the Q-factor

Q of a parallel resonance
circuit is the inverse of the expression for the Q-factor
Q of the
series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor
Q
gives the
he voltage magnification of the circuit, whereas in a
parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.

52
 CHAPTER-5
Transient Response of Simple Circuit (DC)
Circuits that contain capacitors and inductors can be represented by
differential equation. If a circuit contains one resistor and one Inductor (or one
capacitor), it can be represented by first order differential equation. On the other hand if
a circuit contains a resistor, inductor and Capacitor it can be represented by a second
order differential equation. The solution of the differential equation represents the
response of the circuit. The response consists of two parts (1) Transient response (2)
Steady State response. The transient response depends on the circuit elements and initial
energy stored in it. To obtain the transient response of the network it is necessary to find
the initial state of the network.

Initial Condition
Initial condition of a circuit is important to be calculated when a change of
state occurs and the change of state of the network occurs when the switch change its
position at time t=0. The value of voltage, current derivatives of both at t=0- and t=0+,
that is immediately before and after change of switch position. Initial conditions in a
circuit depends on the past history of the network prior to t= 0-. We will assume that the
switch in the network has been in a position for a long time and at t=0, the switch
changes its position. That is we say the circuit is in steady state at the time of switching.

Initial condition in circuit elements.

1. Resistor:- By Ohm’s Law we have V= IR , if there is a change in voltage, the
current through resistance will change simultaneously. Similarly if the current
change, voltage across resistance changes simultaneously.
2. Inductor:- Current through inductor cannot change instantaneously, if the
current through an inductor before switching is zero, then the current through
inductor after switching is also zero.
i.e. iL(0+) = iL(0-)=0
In the same way if the current through inductor before switching is I0, then the
current through inductor after switching is also I0. i.e. iL(0+)=iL(0-)= I0.
3. Capacitor:- Voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously. If the voltage
across capacitor before switching is zero, then the voltage across capacitor after
switching is also zero.
VC(0+) = VC(0-)= 0
If the voltage across capacitor prior to switching is V0 then the voltage across
capacitor immediately after switching is
VC(0+) = VC(0-)=V0

53
 The equivalent from of the elements in terms of the initial condition of the
elements is shown below.

ELEMENT EQUIVALENT FORM AT t=0+/EQUATION CIRCUIT AT

t=0 t= ∞

To solve the initial condition of an element it is necessary to study the

steady state behavior of this element. The steady state behavior can be obtained from the
basic relations.
 =
VL = L  ic= C 
At t=∞, VL = 0 hence the inductor acts as short-circuit
Similarly at t= ∞, iL=0 hence the capacitor acts as open-circuit.

Example: In the network shown in fig.1, the switch K is called at t=0 with the capacitor

uncharged. Find the value of i, , at t= 0+.



Solution:
Apply KVL to the circuit

Ri + > .
 = V -----------------------------eq. (i)

⇒ 500i + .
 = 50 ----------------------------eq. (ii)

VC (0+) = VC(0-)= 0
At t= 0+ 500i (0+)+ 0= 50

i(0+) =  = 0.1A

54
Differentiating eq. (ii)

500 + i =0 --------------------------------eq. (iii)



At t= 0+ 500 (0+) = -i (0+)- =- ×0.1


⇒ (0+) = - = -2000Amp/sec.


Differentiating eq. (iii)


500 =0



⇒ 500 (0+) = (0+) = (-2000)


⇒ (0+) = = 4×106 A/sec2

Transient Response of series R-L circuit having DC Excitation.

Consider a R-L series circuit as shown in figure. The switch is closed at time t=0
Applying KVL
?@AB!
+ Ri(t) = V

@AB!  
⇒ + i(t) =
 C C
General solution of the differential equation
−R
 t


i(t) = + ke L

Since inductor behaves as an open circuit as switching
i(0+)=0
 
0= +K or K= -
 
  
Therefore i(t) = - e-R/L(t) = [1-e(-R/L)t]
  
@AD!
Voltage across inductor VL(t)=L = Ve(-R/L)t

Voltage across resistor VR(t)= V[1-e(-R/L)t]
At t=0, i(t)=0, VL(t) = V VR(t)=0

At t=∞, i(t)= , VL(t)=0, VR(t)= V

C  
At t= i(t)= (1-e-1) = 0.632 , VL(t) = 0.368V
  
i(t) & V(t) are plotted in figure.
L
τ = is known as the time content and is defined as the interval after
R
which current or voltage charges 63.2% of its total change.
55
 Let us analyses the transient condition of the R-L circuit as the circuit
reaches steady state charging switch to S1

di1 ( t )
L + Ri1 ( t ) = 0
dt

Solution of i1(t) = K1e(-R/L)t


Steady state current i(0+) = i(∞) =



= K1e0

⇒ K1 = 
 di1 ( t )
Therefore i1(t)=

e(-R/L)t
, V1R(t)
= Ve(-R/L)t, = L VL1(t)
= -Ve(-R/L)t
dt
i1(t) and V1R(t), V1L(t) are plotted below.

Transient response of series R-C circuit having DC excitation.

Consider a series R-C circuit as shown in figure. The switch S is closed at

time t=0. Applying KVL

Ri(t) + > .
! dt = V
Differentiating, we get
@AD! 
R 
+ > i(t) = 0
General solution of this differential equation is
i(t) = K e – t/RC

at t= 0+ , i(0+) = ∵ capacitor acts as a short-circuit at switching.

 

= Ke0 ⇒K= 

Therefore i(t) = 
e –t/RC

56
Voltage across the resistor and capacitor are
VR(t)= i(t).R = Ve-t/RC
VC(t) = = -t/RC dt
= (-RC)
RC) e-t/RC = V(1-e-t/RC)
At t=0, i(t) = VC (t) = 0 , VR (t)=V
At t= ∞, i(t) = 0 , Vc(t)=V, VR(t) = 0
At t= RC i(t) = e-1 = 0.368 ,
Vi(t)= V(1-e-1) = 0.632V
Let us analyze another transient
condition of R-CC circuit as the circuit reaches
at steady state (at t=∞)
∞) by closing switch at point 2
Ril(t) + 1(t) =0

Differentiating we get
R + i1 ( t ) = 0
Its solution is i1(t) = Ke-t/RC
However at t=0+, capacitor keeps the steady state voltage VC(0+) = V and
direction of i1(t) during discharge is negative
i(0+) = - -
- - = Ke0 ⇒K= - -

i(t) = - e-t/RC V1R(t) = i1(t). R= -V e-t/RC

VC1 (t) = 1(t) dt = V e-t/RC

57
 CHAPTER 6
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The Laplace domain or the "Complex s Domain" is the domain into which
the Laplace transform transforms a time-domain
time domain equation. s is a complex variable,
composed of real and imaginary parts:

The Laplace domain graphs the real part (σ) as the horizontal axis, and
the imaginary part (ω) as the vertical axis. The real and imaginary parts of s can be
considered as independent quantities. The similarity of this notation with the notation
used in Fourier transform theory is no coincidence; for , the Laplace transform is
the same as the Fourier transform if the signal is causal.

The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is as follows:

The transform, by virtue of the definite integral, removes all t from the
resulting equation, leaving instead the new variable
variable s, a complex number that is normally
written as . In essence, this transform takes the function f(t), and
"transforms it" into a function in terms of s, F(s). As a general rule the transform of a
function f(t) is written as F(s). Time-domain
Time functions
ions are written in lower-case,
lower and the
resultant s-domain
domain functions are written in upper-case.
upper
We will use the following notation to show the transform of a function:

We use this notation, because we can convert F(s) back into f(t) using
the inverse Laplace transform.
transform

The Inverse Transform

Initial Value Theorem

This is useful for finding the initial conditions of a function needed when
we perform the transform of a differentiation operation.

58
Final Value Theorem
Similar to the Initial Value Theorem, the Final Value Theorem states that
we can find the value of a function f, as t approaches infinity, in the laplace domain, as
such:

This is useful for finding the steady state response of a circuit. The final
value theorem may only be applied to stable systems.

Laplace Transformation of Signal Waveform

1
Laplace transform of unit step function is
S

1
Laplace transform of ramp function is
S2

Laplace transform of unit impulse function is unity.

The laplace transform can be used independently on different circuit

elements, and then the circuit can be solved entirely in the S Domain (Which is much
easier). Let's take a look at some of the circuit
circ elements:

Resistor
Resistors are time and frequency invariant. Therefore, the transform of a
resistor is the same as the resistance of the resistor:

Compare this result to the phasor impedance value for a resistance r:

You can see very quickly that resistance values are very similar between
phasors and laplace transforms.

Ohm's Law
If we transform Ohm's law, we get the following equation:

Now, following ohms law, the resistance of the circuit element is a ratio of

the voltage to the current. So, we will solve for the quantity , and the result will be
the resistance
sistance of our circuit element.

59
 This ratio, the input/output ratio of our resistor is an important quantity,
and we will find this quantity for all of our circuit elements. We can say that the
transform of a resistor with resistance r is given by:

Capacitors
Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current, and capacitance,
in the time domain:

Solving for voltage, we get the following integral:

Then, transforming this equation into the laplace domain assuming the
zero initial condition,
condition we get the following:

Again, if we solve for the ratio , we get the following:

Therefore, the transform for a capacitor with capacitance C is given by:

Inductors
Let us look at our equation for inductance:

Putting this into the laplace domain assuming the zero initial condition,
condition
we get the formula:

And solving for our ratio , we get the following:

60
 Therefore, the transform of an inductor with inductance L is given by:

Impedance
Impedance of all the load elements can be combined into a single format
dependent on s, we call the effect of all load elements impedance,, the same as we call it in
phasor representation. We denote impedance values with a capital Z (but not a phasor
).

Determining electric current in circuits

In the network shown, determine the
character of the currents , , and assuming
that each current is zero when the switch is closed.

61
Solution:
Current flow at a joint in circuit
Since the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction is zero, then

Voltage balance on a circuit

Applying the voltage law to the circuit on the left we get

Applying again the voltage law to the outside circuit, given that E is constant, we get

Laplace transforms of current and voltage equations

Transforming the above equations,
equations we get

The above three Laplace transformed equations show the benefits of

integral transformation in converting differential equations into linear algebraic
equations that could be solved for the dependent variables (the three currents in this
case), then inverse transformed to yield the required solution

Example: Find the capacitor voltage.

+ vc (t ) −

0 .5 F
− +
v L (t ) 1H v R (t ) 3Ω u (t )
+ −

62
 + Vc (s ) −

2
− s +
VL (s) s VR (s) 3 1
+ − s
I (s )

+Vc (s) − +VR (s) −

2
− s 3
+ 3
VL (s ) s
I (s) − s
+

The capacitor’s voltage

2 −6
Vc ( s ) = ⋅ I (s) =
s s ( s + 3s + 2)
2

Expanding V (s) by partial fraction

c

−6 K K K
Vc ( s ) = = 1+ 2 − 3
s ( s + 1)( s + 2) s s + 1 s + 2

vc (t ) = ( −3 + 6e − t − 3e −2t ) u (t )

63
Step response of an R-L circuit
Consider the RL circuit as shown in the
figure assuming the initial current to be zero. At t = 0
the switch is closed and the voltage E is impressed on
the circuit. The differential equation on application of
KVL is

di ( t )
Ri ( t ) + L =E
dt
E
⇒ RI ( s ) + L  sI ( s ) − iL ( 0 )  =
s
E
⇒ I ( s ) [ sL + R ] =
∵ iL ( 0 ) = 0
s
E E  
E  1 1 
⇒ I (s) = s = L =  −
sL + R  R  R s R
ss +  s+ 
 L  L
−R
E t
takinginverseLT ⇒ i (t ) = 1 − e L

R 

Step response of an R-C circuit

Consider the R-C circuit as shown in the
figure assuming the initial current to be zero. At t = 0 the
switch is closed and the voltage E is impressed on the
circuit. The differential equation on application of KVL is

t
1
Ri ( t ) + i ( t )dt = E
C ∫0
1  I (s) E
⇒ RI ( s ) +  =
C s  s
 1  E
⇒ I ( s) R +  =
 Cs  s
E
⇒ I (s) = R
1
s+
RC
1
E − t RC
takinginverseLTi (t ) = e
R

64
Step response of an R-L-C circuit
Consider the R-L-C series circuit as shown
in the figure assuming the initial current to be zero. At t
= 0 the switch is closed and the voltage E is impressed
on the circuit. The differential equation on application of
KVL is

di ( t ) 1 t
Ri ( t ) + L + ∫ i ( t )dt = E
dt C0
1  I (s)  E
⇒ RI ( s ) + L  sI ( s )  +  =
C s  s
E E
⇒ I (s) = s = L
1 R 1
sL + R + s2 + s +
Cs L LC
E
K1 K2
⇒ I (s) = L = +
( s − s1 )( s − s2 ) ( s − s1 ) ( s − s2 )
⇒ i (t ) = K1e s1t + K 2 e s2t

Where s1 & s2 are the roots of the characteristic equation

1
s 2 + LsR + and K1 & K 2 are constant.
LC
Value of s1 & s2 can be determined as

2
R  R  1
s1 , s2 = − ±   −
2L  2 L  LC

65
Problem 1

66
Problem 2

67
Problem 3

68
Problem 4

69
70
 CHAPTER 7

TWO-PORT NETWORKS

+i1

v
One-Port
Network
-

a) A pair of terminals at which a signal (voltage or current) may enter or leave is

called a port.
b) A network having only one such pair of terminals is called a one-port network.
c) No connections may be made to any other nodes internal to the network.
d) By KCL, we therefore havei1=i1

i
2
+ +
Two-Port
v 1 v 2
Network
-
i' 1 - i'2

Two-port networks are used to describe the relationship between a pair of

terminals

The analysis methods we will discuss require the following conditions be
met
1. Linearity
2. No independent sources inside the network
3. No stored energy inside the network (zero initial conditions)
4. i1 = i1 and i2 = i2

71
Impedance Parameters

Suppose the currents and voltages can be measured.

Alternatively, if the circuit in the box is known,V1 and V2 can be calculated
based on circuit analysis.

Relationship can be written in terms of the impedance parameters.

We can also calculate the impedance parameters after making two sets of
measurements.

V1=z11I1+z12I2
V2=z21I1+z22I2
If the right port is an open circuit (I2=0), then we can easily solve for two of
the impedance parameters: Similarly by open circuiting left hand port (I1=0 ) we can
solve for the other two parameters.
V
V1 Z 21 = forwardtransferimpedence = 2 I 2 = 0
Z11 = inputimpedence = I 2 = 0 I1
I1

V1 V
Z12 = reversetransferimpedence = I1 = 0 Z 22 = outputimpedence = 2 I1 = 0
I2 I2

Impedance Parameter Equivalent

I (s)
1 I (s)
2

z11 z22
+ +

V (s)
1 zI 12 2 zI 21 1 V (s)
2

- -

V1=z11I1+z12I2
V2=z21I1+z22I2

• Once we know what the impedance parameters are, we can model

the behavior of the two-port with an equivalent circuit.
• Notice the similarity to Th´evenin and Norton equivalents

72
Admittance Parameters

i
2
+ +
Two-Port
v 1 v 2
Network
-
i'1 - i'
2

I1=y11V1+y12V2
I2=y21V1+y22V2
I1
Y11 = input admittance = V2 = 0
V1

I2
Y21 = forward transfer admittance = V2 = 0
V1

I1
Y22 = output admittance = V1 = 0
V2

I1
Y12 = reverse transfer admittance = V1 = 0
V2

Hybrid Parameters
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h21I1+h22V2

V1
h11 = input impedance = V2 = 0
I1

I2
h21 = forward current ratio = V2 = 0
I1

V1
h12 = reverse voltage ratio = I1 = 0
V2

I2
h22 = output admittance = I1 = 0
V2

73
Example:

Given the following circuit. Determine the Z parameters.

I1 I2
8Ω 10 Ω

+ +

V1 20 Ω 20 Ω V2

_ _

Z11 = 8 + 20||30 = 20 Ω

Z22 = 20||30 = 12 Ω
V
Z12 = 1 I1 = 0
I2

20 xI 2 x 20 8 xI 2
V1 = = 8 xI 2 Therefore z12 = = 8 Ω = z21
20 + 30 I2

The Z parameter equations can be expressed in matrix form as follows.

V1   z11 z12   I1 
V  =  z  
 2   21 z22   I 2 

V1   20 8   I1 
V  =  8 12   I 
 2   2
Example:
Given the following circuit. Determine the Y parameters.

I1 1Ω
I2

+ +
1 s
V1 V2
s
_ _
1Ω

I1 = y11V1 + y12V2
I2 = y21V1 + y22V2

74
 I1 1Ω
I2

+ +
1 s
V1
s V2
_ _
1Ω
To find y11

2
V1 = I1 ( s )= I  2 
1
2 +1 s  2s + 1

I I
So y11 =
1 y = 1 = s + 0.5
V 11 V V2 = 0
1 1
To find y and y we reverse things and short V
12 21 1

I2
y21 = V2 = 0
V1

V = − 2I
1 2
I2
y21 = = 0.5 S
V1

I1
y12 = V =0
V2 1

I1
V2 = − 2 I1 y12 = = 0.5s
V2
1
y22 = 0.5 +
s
I2 2s 1
y22 = V1 = 0 V2 = I 2 y22 = 0.5 +
V2 ( s + 2) s

75
Problem 1

76
77
Problem 2

78
Problem 3

Problem 4

79
80
81
 CHAPTER 8
LOW PASS FILTER INTRODUCTION
Basically, an electrical filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify,
reshape or reject all unwanted frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only
those signals wanted by the circuit’s designer. In other words they “filter-out” unwanted
signals and an ideal filter will separate and pass sinusoidal input signals based upon
their frequency.

In low frequency applications (up to 100kHz), passive filters are generally

constructed using simple RC(Resistor-Capacitor) networks, while higher frequency
filters (above 100kHz) are usually made from RLC (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor)
components.
Passive Filters are made up of passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so
have no signal gain, therefore their output level is always less than the input.
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they
allow to pass through them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most
commonly used filter designs are the:

• 1. The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from
0Hz to its cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
• 2. The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals
from its cut-off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while
blocking those any lower.
• 3. The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain
frequency band setup between two points to pass through while blocking both the
lower and higher frequencies either side of this frequency band.
• 4 Band Stop Filter - It is so called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters;
this kind of filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range set by
the component values.
Simple First-order passive filters (1st order) can be made by connecting
together a single resistor and a single capacitor in series across an input signal, (Vin)
with the output of the filter, (Vout ) taken from the junction of these two components.
Depending on which way around we connect the resistor and the capacitor with regards
to the output signal determines the type of filter construction resulting in either a Low
Pass Filter or a High Pass Filter.
As the function of any filter is to allow signals of a given band of
frequencies to pass unaltered while attenuating or weakening all others those are not

82
wanted, we can define the amplitude response characteristics of an ideal filter by using
an ideal frequency response curve of the four basic filter types as shown.

IDEAL FILTER RESPONSE CURVES

A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance, inductance or

resistance intended to produce high attenuation above a specified frequency and little or
no attenuation below that frequency. The frequency at which the transition occurs is
called the “cutoff” frequency. The simplest low pass filters consist of a resistor and
capacitor but more sophisticated low pass filters have a combination of series inductors
and parallel capacitors. In this tutorial we will look at the simplest type, a passive two
component RC low pass filter.

THE LOW PASS FILTER

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by
connecting together in series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below.
In this type of filter arrangement the input signal (Vin) is applied to the series
combination (both the Resistor and Capacitor together) but the output signal (Vout ) is
taken across the capacitor only. This type of filter is known generally as a “first-order
filter” or “one-pole filter”, why first-order or single-pole?, because it has only “one”
reactive component, the capacitor, in the circuit.

RC LOW PASS FILTER CIRCUIT

As mentioned
previously in the Capacitive
Reactance tutorial, the reactance of a
capacitor varies inversely with
frequency, while the value of the
resistor remains constant as the
frequency changes. At low
frequencies the capacitive reactance,
(Xc) of the capacitor will be very
large compared to the resistive value of the resistor, R and as a result the voltage across
the capacitor, Vc will also be large while the voltage drop across the resistor, Vr will be
much lower. At high frequencies the reverse is true with Vc being small and Vr being
large.
While the circuit above is that of an RC Low Pass Filter circuit, it can also
be classed as a frequency variable potential divider circuit similar to the one we looked

83
at in the Resistors tutorial. In that tutorial we used the following equation to calculate
the output voltage for two single resistors connected in series.

We also know that the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit

is given as:

Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is called impedance,

symbol Z and for a series circuit consisting of a single resistor in series with a single
capacitor, the circuit impedance is calculated as:

Then by substituting our equation for impedance above into the resistive
potential divider equation gives us:

RC POTENTIAL DIVIDER EQUATION

So, by using the potential divider equation of two resistors in series and
substituting for impedance we can calculate the output voltage of an RC Filter for any
given frequency.

84
LOW PASS FILTER EXAMPLE
A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a
capacitor of 47nF is connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output
voltage (Vout ) at a frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or 10kHz.

Voltage Output at a Frequency of 100Hz.

Voltage Output at a Frequency of 10,000Hz (10kHz).

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
We can see from the results above that as the frequency applied to the RC network
increases from 100Hz to 10 kHz, the voltage dropped across the capacitor and therefore
the output voltage (Vout) from the circuit decreases from 9.9v to 0.718v.
By plotting the networks output voltage against different values of input frequency,
the Frequency Response Curve or Bode Plot function of the low pass filter circuit can be
found, as shown below.

85
Frequency Response of a 1st-order Low Pass Filter

The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat
for low frequencies and the entire input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting
in a gain of nearly 1, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point (ƒc). This is
because the reactance of the capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks any current
flow through the capacitor.
After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit decreases to
zero at a slope of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) “roll-off”. Note that the angle of the
slope, this -20dB/ Decade roll-off will always be the same for any RC combination.
Any high frequency signals applied to the low pass filter circuit above this
cut-off frequency point will become greatly attenuated, that is they rapidly decrease.
This happens because at very high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor becomes
so low that it gives the effect of a short circuit condition on the output terminals
resulting in zero output.
Then by carefully selecting the correct resistor-capacitor combination, we
can create a RC circuit that allows a range of frequencies below a certain value to pass
through the circuit unaffected while any frequencies applied to the circuit above this
cut-off point to be attenuated, creating what is commonly called a Low Pass Filter.

86
 For this type of “Low Pass Filter” circuit, all the frequencies below this
cut-off, ƒc point that are unaltered with little or no attenuation and are said to be in the
filters Pass band zone. This pass band zone also represents the Bandwidth of the filter.
Any signal frequencies above this point cut-off point are generally said to be in the
filters Stop band zone and they will be greatly attenuated.
This “Cut-off”, “Corner” or “Breakpoint” frequency is defined as being the
frequency point where the capacitive reactance and resistance are equal, R = Xc = 4k7Ω.
When this occurs the output signal is attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value or -
3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input. Although R = Xc, the output is not half of the input
signal. This is because it is equal to the vector sum of the two and is therefore 0.707 of
the input.
As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle (Φ) of the output
signal LAGS behind that of the input and at the -3dB cut-off frequency (ƒc) and is -
45o out of phase. This is due to the time taken to charge the plates of the capacitor as the
input voltage changes, resulting in the output voltage (the voltage across the capacitor)
“lagging” behind that of the input signal. The higher the input frequency applied to the
filter the more the capacitor lags and the circuit becomes more and more “out of phase”.
The cut-off frequency point and phase shift angle can be found by using
the following equation:

CUT-OFF FREQUENCY AND PHASE SHIFT

Then for our simple example of a “Low Pass Filter” circuit above, the cut-
off frequency (ƒc) is given as720Hz with an output voltage of 70.7% of the input voltage
value and a phase shift angle of -45o.

HIGH PASS FILTERS

A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that of the previously
seen Low Pass filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with
the output signal ( Vout ) being taken from across the resistor as shown.

Where as the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off
frequency point, ƒc, the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes
signals above the selected cut-off point, ƒc eliminating any low frequency signals from
the waveform. Consider the circuit below.

87
THE HIGH PASS FILTER CIRCUIT

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low
frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals
at Vin until the cut-off frequency point (ƒc) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency
point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a
short circuit allowing the entire input signal to pass directly to the output as shown
below in the High Pass Frequency Response Curve.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A 1ST ORDER HIGH PASS FILTER.

88
 The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for a High Pass filter is
the exact opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at
low frequencies with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the
frequency reaches the cut-off point ( ƒc ) where again R = Xc. It has a response curve
that extends down from infinity to the cut-off frequency, where the output voltage
amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the
input value.
Also we can see that the phase angle (Φ) of the output signal LEADS that
of the input and is equal to+45o at frequency ƒc. The frequency response curve for a
high pass filter implies that the filter can pass all signals out to infinity. However in
practice, the high pass filter response does not extend to infinity but is limited by the
electrical characteristics of the components used.
The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass filter can be found
using the same equation as that of the low pass filter, but the equation for the phase
shift is modified slightly to account for the positive phase angle as shown below.

CUT-OFF FREQUENCY AND PHASE SHIFT

The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:

HIGH PASS FILTER EXAMPLE.

Calculate the cut-off or “breakpoint” frequency ( ƒc ) for a simple high
pass filter consisting of an82pF capacitor connected in series with a 240kΩ resistor.

89
BAND PASS FILTERS
The cut-off frequency or ƒc point in a simple RC passive filter can be
accurately controlled using just a single resistor in series with a non-polarized
capacitor, and depending upon which way around they are connected either a low pass
or a high pass filter is obtained.

One simple use for these types of Passive Filters is in audio amplifier
applications or circuits such as in loudspeaker crossover filters or pre-amplifier tone
controls. Sometimes it is necessary to only pass a certain range of frequencies that do
not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at some high frequency point but are within a certain
frequency band, either narrow or wide.
By connecting or “cascading” together a single Low Pass Filter circuit with
a High Pass Filter circuit, we can produce another type of passive RC filter that passes a
selected range or “band” of frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while
attenuating all those outside of this range. This new type of passive filter arrangement
produces a frequency selective filter known commonly as a Band Pass Filter or BPF for
short.

BAND PASS FILTER CIRCUIT

Unlike a low pass filter that only pass signals of a low frequency range or
a high pass filter which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass
Filters passes signals within a certain “band” or “spread” of frequencies without
distorting the input signal or introducing extra noise. This band of frequencies can be
any width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
Bandwidth is commonly defined as the frequency range that exists
between two specified frequency cut-off points ( ƒc ), that are 3dB below the maximum
centre or resonant peak while attenuating or weakening the others outside of these two
points.
Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define the term
“bandwidth”, BW as being the difference between the lower cut-off frequency (ƒcLOWER )
and the higher cut-off frequency ( ƒcHIGHER ) points. In other words, BW = ƒH – ƒL. Clearly
for a pass band filter to function correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter
must be higher than the cut-off frequency for the high pass filter.
The “ideal” Band Pass Filter can also be used to isolate or filter out certain
frequencies that lie within a particular band of frequencies, for example, noise

90
cancellation. Band pass filters are known generally as second-order filters, (two-pole)
because they have “two” reactive component, the capacitors, within their circuit design.
One capacitor in the low pass circuit and another capacitor in the high pass circuit.

Frequency Response of a 2nd Order Band Pass Filter.

The Bode Plot or frequency response curve above shows the

characteristics of the band pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated at low frequencies
with the output increasing at a slope of +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the
frequency reaches the “lower cut-off” point ƒL. At this frequency the output voltage is
again 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input.
The output continues at maximum gain until it reaches the “upper cut-off”
point ƒH where the output decreases at a rate of -20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave)
attenuating any high frequency signals. The point of maximum output gain is generally
the geometric mean of the two -3dB value between the lower and upper cut-off points
and is called the “Centre Frequency” or “Resonant Peak” value ƒr. This geometric mean
value is calculated as being ƒr 2 = ƒ(UPPER) x ƒ(LOWER).
A band pass filter is regarded as a second-order (two-pole) type filter
because it has “two” reactive components within its circuit structure, then the phase
angle will be twice that of the previously seen first-order filters, i.e., 180o. The phase

91
angle of the output signal LEADS that of the input by +90o up to the centre or resonant
frequency, ƒr point were it becomes “zero” degrees (0o) or “in-phase”
phase” and then changes
to LAG the input by -90o as the output frequency increases.
The upper and lower cut-off
cut off frequency points for a band pass filter can be
found using the same formula as that for both the low and high pass filters, For example.

Then clearly, the width of the pass band of the filter can be controlled by the
positioning of the two cut-off
off frequency points of the two filters.

Band Pass Filter Example

A second-order
order band pass filter is to be constructed using RC
components that will only allow a range of frequencies to pass above 1kHz (1,000Hz)
and below 30kHz (30,000Hz). Assuming that both the resistors have values of 10kΩ´s,
calculate the values of the two capacitors required.

The High Pass Filter Stage

The value of the capacitor C1 required to give a cut-off
off frequency ƒL of
1kHz with a resistor value of10kΩ
of is calculated as:

Then, the values of R1 and C1 required for the high pass stage to give a
cut-off
off frequency of 1.0kHz are: R1 = 10kΩ´s and C1 = 15nF.

The Low Pass Filter Stage

The value of the capacitor C2 required to give a cut-off frequency ƒH of 30kHz with a
resistor value of10kΩ is calculated as:

92
 Then, the values of R2 and C2 required for the low pass stage to give a
cut-off frequency of 30kHz are, R = 10kΩ´s and C = 510pF. However, the nearest
preferred value of the calculated capacitor value of 510pF is 560pF so this is used
instead.
With the values of both the resistances R1 and R2 given as 10kΩ, and the
two values of the capacitors C1 and C2 found for the high pass and low pass filters
as 15nF and 560pF respectively, then the circuit for our simple passive Band Pass
Filter is given as.

Completed Band Pass Filter Circuit

Band Pass Filter Resonant Frequency

We can also calculate the “Resonant” or “Centre Frequency” (ƒr) point of the band pass
filter were the output gain is at its maximum or peak value. This peak value is not the
arithmetic average of the upper and lower -3dB cut-off points as you might expect but is
in fact the “geometric” or mean value. This geometric mean value is calculated as
being ƒr 2 = ƒc(UPPER) x ƒc(LOWER) for example:

Centre Frequency Equation

• Where, ƒr is the resonant or centre frequency

• ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point
• ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point
And in our simple example above, the calculated cut-off frequencies were
found to be ƒL = 1,060 Hz and ƒH = 28,420 Hz using the filter values.
Then by substituting these values into the above equation gives a central
resonant frequency of:

93
Band-stop filters

It is so called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters; this kind of

filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the component
values. Not surprisingly, it can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass
pass filter, just like
the band-pass
pass design, except that this time we connect the two filter sections in parallel
with each other instead of in series. (Figure below)

System level block diagram of a band-stop

band filter.

Constructed using two capacitive filter sections, it looks something like

(Figure below).

94