Provisional chapter

Solar Cooling Technologies

Salman Ajib and Ali Alahmer

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Author Queries
[AQ1] Please check if the edits made to the head level “Classification of solar
cooling technologies” are correct.
[AQ2] Please check if the edits made to the sentence “These mixing steams enter
into …” are correct.
[AQ3] References [4] and [23] are identical. Hence, Ref. [23] has been excluded and
the subsequent references have been renumbered thereon. Please check.
[AQ4] Two different references were numbered as [12]. Hence, the second one has
been renumbered as [13] (i.e., the last reference), which is not cited in the
text, and has been cited along with Ref. [12]. Please check.
[AQ5] Please provide the publisher location in Refs. [5, 14, 15].
[AQ6] Please provide the publisher name in Ref. [9].
[AQ7] Please provide the page number for Refs. [18, 19].

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 02 Salman Ajib and Ali Alahmer

03 Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

2 Energy Conversion

04 Abstract
05 This chapter describes different available technologies to provide the cooling effect by
06 utilizing solar energy for both thermal and photovoltaic ways. Moreover, this chapter
07 highlights the following points: (i) the main attributes for different solar cooling technol-
08 ogies to recognize the main advantages, challenges, disadvantages, and feasibility analy-
09 sis; (ii) the need for further research to reduce solar cooling chiller manufacture costs
10 and improve its performance; (iii) it provides useful information for decision-makers to
11 select the proper solar cooling technology for specific application. Furthermore, some
12 references, which include investigation results, will be included. A conclusion about the
13 main gained investigation results will summarize the investigation results and the per-
14 spectives of such technologies.

15 Keywords: cooling, air conditioning system, solar cooling, performance, absorption

16 machines, adsorption machines

17 1. Introduction

18 Today, the increase of requirements for indoor cooling demands improves thermal human
19 comfort inside residential buildings, reduces the divergence between the energy supply and
20 energy demand by the use of low-grade heat sources such as solar energy and industrial
21 waste heat, lowers the CO2 emissions in the building sector due to the use of air condition
22 systems, and finally reduces the peak of energy consumption of air conditioning processes
23 generated by the use of conventional vapor compression system especially during summer
24 period for the buildings and spaces that have high latent loads. All above reasons make the
25 solar cooling that has been received much more attention as innovative, promising, efficient,
26 and environmentally friendly air conditioning systems as alternative options for conven-
27 tional air conditioning systems [1, 2]. The building sector is considered as a major contributor

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 Solar Cooling Technologies 3

01 to energy consumption in the world. Numerically, 41.1% of the total energy in the United
02 States in 2011 was consumed in the building sector, and this state is expected to increase
03 to 42.1% in 2035 [3]. In Europe, buildings consumed for 39% of total energy consumption,
04 which 26% is for residential buildings and 13% for commercial architectures [4]. In China,
05 25–30% of the total energy is consumed by civil and industrial buildings [5]. A same scenario
06 in Australia which the building industry consumes 40% of the total energy produced [6].
07 According to the report issued by EU strategy on heating and cooling 2016, the energy con-
08 sumption for cooling and heating in buildings demonstrated about 80%. Although less than
09 20% is presently exploited for cooling purposes, the domestic cooling building still has a high
10 potential for growth. Moreover, the use of the innovative low-energy cooling technologies
11 for heating and cooling will bring fuel savings of 5 Mtoe per year in 2030, corresponding to 9
12 million ton of CO2 [7]. Therefore, the annual energy for air-conditioning purposes for a room
13 was increased considerably, which was 1.7 GWh in 1990 and it reached 44 GWh in 2010 [8].
14 The Mediterranean countries have saved 40–50% of their energy consumed for refrigeration
15 and air-conditioning by using solar-driven air-conditioning system techniques [9, 10]. It is
16 stated that the solar system was able to contribute up to 70% of total energy consumption for
17 heating and air-conditioning for domestic buildings. Many solar cooling technologies such
18 as solar absorption, solar adsorption, desiccant, and ejector systems have been studied by
19 researchers. Among these technologies, solar absorption is the most widely used technology
20 with 59% of the installed systems in Europe against 11% for solar adsorption and 23% for
21 desiccant cooling [11]. Many investigations have been done on solar thermal-driven absorp-
22 tion refrigeration machines in the small range of refrigeration capacity (5–30 kW). Some of the
23 investigation results have been published in [12–14]. A design guide for solar cooling systems
24 is presented in [15].

25 2. Classification of solar cooling technologies

26 Solar cooling systems can be classified into two main categories according to the energy used AQ1
27 to drive them: solar thermal cooling systems and solar electric cooling systems. In solar ther-
28 mal cooling systems, the cooling process is driven by solar collectors collecting solar energy
29 and converting it into thermal energy, and uses this energy to drive thermal cooling systems
30 such as absorption, adsorption, and desiccant cycles; whereas in solar electric cooling sys-
31 tems, electrical energy that is provided by solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is used to drive a
32 conventional electric vapor compressor air-conditioning system. Both types of solar cooling
33 can be used in industrial and domestic refrigeration and air-conditioning processes, with up
34 to 95% saving in electricity [16].

35 2.1. Electricity-driven solar refrigeration systems

36 In general, the solar electrical cooling system consists of two parts: photovoltaic panel and
37 electrical refrigeration device. Photovoltaic cells transform light into electricity through pho-
38 toelectric effect. The power generated by solar photovoltaic panel is supplied either to the
39 vapor compression systems, thermoelectrical system, or Stirling cycle.
4 Energy Conversion

01 2.1.1. Solar-powered vapor compression systems

02 Photovoltaic powered refrigerators are an alternative option to produce cooling in remote

03 areas of developing countries. Photovoltaic cell converts the incident solar radiation to DC
04 power which can drive the compressor of vapor compression system. This system as depicted
05 in Figure  1 consists of a DC compression refrigerator connected to controller, a battery to
06 supply and store energy, and a photovoltaic (PV) generator which supplies the refrigerator
07 and charges the battery with excess energy. The main advantage of this system compared to
08 the other air-conditioning systems is that it does not require an outside fuel supply. In order
09 to run the system at highest efficiency, the voltage should be close to the voltage produced at
10 the maximum possible power.

11 2.1.2. Thermoelectric cooling systems (the Peltier cooling system)

12 Thermoelectric device utilizes the Peltier effect to make a temperature gradient by creating heat
13 flux between two different types of semiconductors materials. Riffat and Qiu [17] defined the
14 Peltier effect as presence of cooling or heating effect at junction of two different conductors due
15 to electricity flow. The main principle of working thermoelectric cooling systems is shown in
16 Figure 2 and follows these steps: an electric current flows across the joint of n- and p-type semi-
17 conductor materials by applying a voltage. When the current passes through the junctions of the

18 Figure 1. A configuration of a PV solar-powered vapor compression systems.

 Solar Cooling Technologies 5

01 Figure 2. Thermoelectric cooling configuration.

02 two conductors, heat is removed at one junction and absorbs the heat from its surrounding space
03 to create a cooling effect. Heat is deposited at the other junction. When a direction of the current
04 is reversed, the air-conditioning system operates in the heating manner due to reverse of the heat
05 flow direction. The main advantages of using thermoelectric cooling compared to vapor compres-
06 sion cycle are as follows: (a) compact and lightweight due to no bulky compressor units needed;
07 (b) no moving parts; (c) environment friendly due to no hazardous gases; (d) silent operation; (e)
08 high reliability in which a mean time between failures (MTBF) is more than 100,000 h; (f) precise
09 temperature stability in which a tolerance of better than +/−0.1°C; and (g) finally cooling/heating
10 mode option, which is fully reversible with switch in polarity and supports rapid temperature
11 cycling. But on the other side, high cost and low efficiency are the main disadvantages.

12 2.1.3. Stirling systems

13 The cooling cycle is split into four steps as depicted in Figure 3. The cycle starts when the two
14 pistons are in their most left positions:

15 • Process (a​→​b): Isothermal compression process and heat rejection to the surrounding.
16 Initially, the left warm piston moves to the right while the cold piston is fixed. The isother-
17 mal compression process was occurred and the pressure rises, so the heat transfer Qa is
18 taken to the surroundings at ambient temperature Ta.
19 • Process (b​→​c): Constant volume. The two pistons move to the right at the same rate to keep
20 the volume constant, so the volume between the two pistons is kept constant. The hot gas
21 enters the regenerator with temperature Ta and leaves it with temperature TL. The heat is
22 transferred to the regenerator material.
23 • Process (c​→​d): Isothermal expansion process and heat addition from the external source.
24 The cold piston moves to the right while the warm piston is fixed. The isothermal expan-
25 sion was occurred and the pressure decreases, so the heat transfer QL is taken up. This is
26 the useful cooling power.
6 Energy Conversion

01 Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of a Stirling cooler; (b) four states in the Stirling cycle; and (c) PV-diagram of the ideal
Stirling cycle.

02 • Process (d​→​a): Constant volume. The two pistons move to the left to keep the total volume
03 constant.

04 • The gas temperature rises from TL to Ta so heat is taken up from the regenerator material.
05 This completes the cycle.

06 2.2. Solar thermal cooling systems

07 2.2.1. Absorption systems

08 The absorption refrigeration cycle is one of the oldest refrigeration technologies. Absorption
09 refrigeration cycle operates under the same principle as the conventional vapor compression
10 refrigeration cycle in the refrigerant side. The mechanical compressor in the conventional
11 vapor compression refrigeration cycle is replaced by the thermal compressor in the absorp-
12 tion refrigeration cycle. The thermal compressor consists of absorber and generator. Figure 4
13 shows the general schematic of a single effect absorption cycle [18]. The absorption chiller
14 cycle consists of the following steps:

15 1. The rich solution (rich on coolant) will be pumped from the absorber to the generator pass-
16 ing the solution heat exchanger (economizer).
 Solar Cooling Technologies 7

01 Figure 4. Schematic of the absorption chilling cycle [18].

02 2. Through the heat supply in the generator from a driving heat source (solar collectors), a
03 part of the coolant will be driven out from the rich solution and flows to the condenser.
04 After that, the remaining poor solution (poor on coolant) flows back to the absorber.
05 3. In the condenser, the refrigerant vapor from the generator condenses in the condenser. The
06 heat of condensation must be rejected at an intermediate temperature level by the use of
07 the cooling water supplied from a cooling tower.
08 4. The refrigerant condensate flows back to the evaporator at low pressure through an expan-
09 sion device. The cycle of the coolant then repeats.
10 5. In the evaporator, the refrigerant is vaporized at very low pressure to produce the cooling
11 power by extracting heat from the low-temperature medium. The coolant vapor flows to
12 the absorber.
13 6. In the absorber, refrigerant vapor is absorbed by the poor solution, which flows back from
14 the generator passing the economizer and the throttle. Then, the heat of absorption and
15 mixing is rejected by the cooling water stream supplied from a cooling tower. After that,
16 the cycle of the solution will repeat again.

17 The two main pairs of refrigerant/absorbent that are widely used are water/lithium bromide
18 (H2O/LiBr) and ammonia/water pair (NH3/H2O), where water is the refrigerant (coolant) and
19 LiBr is the absorbent; while for the second pair, ammonia and water are the refrigerant and
20 absorbent, respectively.
8 Energy Conversion

01 List of advantages of using water/LiBr pair, which is the most common for solar air-condition-
02 ing application, is as follows:

03 • uses nontoxic substances;

04 • low working pressures; and

05 • nonvolatile absorbent, i.e., there is no need of rectification of the refrigerant.

06 However, there are disadvantages associated with the water/LiBr pair and are as follows:

07 • Water cooling is required, which is commonly accomplished by a cooling tower. Cooling

08 towers have the risk of legionella;

09 • Systems have bigger sizes which are due to the large volume of the water vapor;

10 • Risk of corrosion of the components; and

11 • Risk of the crystallization of the solution at very low cooling temperatures.

12 2.2.2. Adsorption systems

13 Adsorption refrigeration cycle is similar to absorption refrigeration cycle. The main differ-
14 ence in the former is that the refrigerant is adsorbed on the internal surface of highly porous
15 solid material instead of the refrigerant being absorbed by a liquid solution. In the adsorption
16 refrigeration cycle, the solid sorbent and the refrigerant form the adsorption pairs such as
17 activated carbon-ammonia, activated carbon-methanol, activated carbon-ethanol, silica gel-
18 water, and zeolite-water.

19 Adsorption is a physical or chemical process that is different from absorption, which is a

20 chemical process. Just as there is an attraction between a liquid and a solid at a surface, there
21 is also an attraction between a gas and a solid at a surface. Adsorption is a surface phenom-
22 enon which can be divided into physical adsorption (physisorption) and chemical adsorption
23 (chemisorption). Physical adsorption generally resulted by the Van der Waals forces through
24 physical process, and chemical adsorption usually achieved by valency forces through chemi-
25 cal process. The heat of adsorption is usually large in chemical adsorption and small in physi-
26 cal adsorption. Adsorbent substances can be retained to original properties by a desorption
27 process under the application of heat.

28 The adsorption refrigeration cycle consists of two sorption chambers, a condenser, and an
29 evaporator, as illustrated in Figure 5. The adsorption cycle achieves a COP of 0.3–0.7, depend-
30 ing upon the driving heat temperature of 55–90°C.

31 The working cycle of 5–7 min consists of the following four steps [19]:

32 1. In the first step, the adsorbed water is desorbed after the application of thermal energy (as
33 example from solar energy). The collector becomes the generator (1).
 Solar Cooling Technologies 9

01 Figure 5. Schematic of adsorption cycle solar cooling system.

02 2. In the second step, the desorbed refrigerant (water) is cooled and condensed to liquid in
03 the condenser by rejecting the heat through the cooling water supplied from a cooling
04 tower.
05 3. In the third step, the condensed water flows through the expansion valve to the evapora-
06 tor, where it vaporizes under low partial pressure and low temperature in the evaporator
07 while the useful cooling is produced, then heat is taken away from the chilled water.
08 4. In the fourth and final step, the vaporized water is adsorbed in the collector (2) until the
09 silica gel is saturated, then it is switched to the second adsorber chamber.
10 5. The circuit is completed as the condensed water is fed back into the evaporator through a
11 valve.
12 6. The functions of two sorption chambers are reversed by alternating the opening of the
13 butterfly valves and the direction of the heating and cooling refrigerants. In this way, the
14 chilling refrigerant is obtained continuously. The cycle then repeats.

15 Advantages of adsorption chiller systems compared to absorption chiller systems [20, 21] are
16 as follows:

17 1. The operating temperatures can be lower, e.g., 55–90°C as compared to 70–120°C for
18 absorption chillers.
10 Energy Conversion

01 2. There is no low limit to the temperature reservoir.

02 3. There is no limitation for the low cooling water temperature, because there is no risk of
03 crystallization problem as in the case of absorption chillers.

04 4. No risk of corrosion problem as in the case of absorption chillers, because there are heat
05 sources with temperature close to 500°C that can be used directly.

06 5. The adsorption systems have flexibility in regeneration temperature and do not require
07 frequent replacement of adsorbent.

08 6. The adsorption systems do not need a rectifier for the refrigerant or solution pump in
09 comparison with absorption systems.

10 The disadvantages of adsorption chiller systems include [22]:

11 1. Adsorption technology is more expensive than absorption technology.

12 2. The average COP of adsorption chillers is lower than the absorption chillers.

13 3. The adsorption chillers are both heavy weight and larger than the absorption chillers.

14 4. Heat recovery is very complex, because the adsorption system is intermittent system.

15 Advantages of absorption and adsorption chiller systems compared to vapor compression

16 systems:

17 1. Absorption and adsorption systems are environmentally friendly. The equipment uses
18 completely harmless working fluids.

19 2. The maximum cooling load can be achieved with the maximum available solar radiation
20 and hence potential of the refrigeration system.

21 3. Maintenance costs are lower due to fewer moving parts like solenoid valves and vacuum
22 pumps. It is almost noiseless system, where there are not many moving parts, other than
23 the solution pump in the absorption refrigeration systems.

24 4. Taking advantage of solar thermal plants in the sorption refrigeration technology even
25 when there is no heat demand.

26 5. Operation costs are lower due to low electricity consumption in comparison with vapor
27 compression systems.

28 2.2.3. Desiccant systems

29 The desiccant air-conditioning system utilizes the capability of desiccant materials in

30 removing the air moisture content by sorption process. All materials that attract moisture
31 at different capacities are called desiccant [4]. The desiccant cooling system can be a suit-
32 able selection for thermal comfort especially in climates with high humidity. Moreover, this
 Solar Cooling Technologies 11

01 technique allows us to utilize renewable energy or low-temperature gains from solar energy,
02 waste heat, and cogeneration to drive the cooling cycle. The comparison between desiccant
03 system and conventional systems is listed in Table 1. There are many required properties
04 for any desiccant materials selected in open-cycle cooling based on [23]: (i) mechanical
05 and chemical stability; (ii) large moisture capacity per unit weight; (iii) low heat of adsorp-
06 tion/absorption to regenerate; (iv) sorption rate; (v) large adsorption/absorption capacity
07 at low water vapor pressures; (vi) cheap cost; (vii) sorption at low relative humidity; and
08 (viii) finally ideal isotherm shape.

09 Two configurations were described in detail below: ventilation and recirculation modes. The
10 schematic of the ventilation mode representation is demonstrated in Figure 6a. On the condi-
11 tioning side of the system (air processing side), warm and humid air enters the slowly rotating
12 desiccant wheel and is dehumidified by adsorption of water (1–2). Since the air is heated up
13 by the adsorption heat, a heat recovery wheel is passed (2–3), resulting in a significant pre-
14 cooling of the supply air stream. Subsequently, the air is humidified and thus further cooled
15 by a controlled humidifier (3–4) according to the set-values of supply air temperature and
16 humidity. In order to control the sensible heat factor, the remix air is introduced by the mix
17 evaporatively cooled room air with the cooled and dried room make-up air (5–6). On the
18 regeneration side of the system, the exhaust air stream of the rooms is humidified (6–7) close
19 to the saturation point to exploit the full cooling potential in order to allow an effective heat
20 recovery (7–8). After that, the sorption wheel has to be regenerated (8–9) by applying heat in a
21 comparatively low temperature range from 50 to 75°C and to allow a continuous operation of
22 the dehumidification process. Finally, the cold and humid air is exhausted to the atmosphere
23 (9–10) and the cooling cycle is completed.

Parameter Conventional system Desiccant system

Operation cost High Low

Performance High Low

Energy source Mainly electricity Low-grade energy

Environmental safety Less High

System care Less High

Control over humidity Average Accurate

Indoor air quality Less More

System installation Simple More complicate

Energy storage capacity Mainly not applicable Applicable

Installation cost High Low

System control Average Complicate

24

Table 1. The comparison between desiccant system and conventional systems.

12 Energy Conversion

01 Figure 6. Schematic of desiccant cooling system in (a) ventilation mode and (b) recirculation mode.

02 The recirculation mode representation is depicted in Figure 6b. It uses the same components
03 as the ventilation mode except the process air side in the recirculation mode is a closed
04 loop, whereas the regeneration air side is an open cycle where the outdoor air is used for
05 regeneration.

06 2.2.4. Ejector systems

07 A solar-driven ejector cooling system consists of an ejector cooling cycle and a collector cir-
08 cuit. The main components of the system are collector array, generator, ejector, condenser,
09 expansion valve, evaporator, and cycle pump. A schematic diagram of the solar ejector cool-
10 ing system and its component is presented in Figure 7. The working principle of the ejector
11 systems follows the below states [24, 25]:
 Solar Cooling Technologies 13

01 Figure 7. Schematic presentation of the solar ejector cooling configuration.

02 In the generator, the refrigerant is vaporized as a primary steam by utilizing the solar energy
03 coming from the solar collector. This primary steam leaves the generator at a relatively high
04 pressure and enters the supersonic nozzle of the ejector to accelerate it at supersonic velocity
05 and creating low pressure at the nozzle exit section. This low pressure draws the second-
06 ary flow coming from the evaporator into the chamber. The primary and secondary streams
07 are mixed in the mixing chamber. These mixing steams enter into diffuses where increases AQ2
08 its pressure to the condensing pressure. The mixing stream discharges from the ejector to
09 the condenser, where the stream is converted into liquid refrigerant by rejection heat to the
10 surrounding. Some part of the liquid refrigerant pumps to the generator and the remaining
11 liquid part leaves the condenser and enters the evaporator through expansion value.

12 In expansion value, the refrigerant pressure is dropped and this refrigerant enters the evapo-
13 rator to absorb heat from space that required to cool and the refrigerant is converted into
14 vapor and enters to the ejector.

15 2.2.5. Rankine systems

16 One of the promising methods that utilize solar heat to produce mechanical work and then
17 use it to drive a conventional vapor compression cycle is solar Rankine cooling systems. Two
18 different configurations of solar Rankine cooling systems were suggested by different scholars
14 Energy Conversion

01 Figure  8. Representation of a Rankine solar cooling system as (a) separate configuration for power and refrigeration
cycles and (b) integrated configuration for power and refrigeration cycle.

02 [26]. One arrangement is using separate power and cooling system where the compressor of
03 the vapor compression cycle is mechanically coupled with the expander of organic Rankine
04 cycle. Another arrangement is an integrated system by the use of one joint condenser for both
05 cycle coupled with the expander-compressor.
06 The main advantages of a second configuration are the use of a same working fluid in both
07 loops to remove a leakage and mixing problems. Moreover, the integrated design is simpler
08 but on the other side reduces the system flexibility.
09 Figure  8 depicts a schematic for two widely solar Rankine cooling system arrangements.
10 In the first loop of organic Rankine cycle, high-pressure liquid coming from the pump is
11 vaporized inside the boiler (state 1) that absorbs the heat from solar collector. The vapor
12 (state 2) enters the expander and produces a useful work which is used to drive a compres-
13 sor of a conventional refrigeration cycle. The working fluid pressure from the expander
14 outlet is same to the condenser pressure (state 3). After that, a rejection heat to the sur-
15 rounding inside the condenser converts the working fluid to saturated fluid. Subsequently,
16 a pressure of the working fluid is increased by using pump to enter a boiler as subcooled
17 liquid (state 1).

18 3. Conclusion

19 The executed investigations on the field of solar thermal-driven cooling systems and the
20 gained results can be concluded as follows:
 Solar Cooling Technologies 15

01 • The investigations on solar thermal-driven systems show that solar thermal refrigeration
02 systems are promised technologies, especially in the small and middle cooling capacity
03 ranges.

04 • The work temperatures have a big impact on the refrigeration capacity of the chiller.

05 • The higher is the required chilled water temperature, the higher are the refrigeration capac-
06 ity and the coefficient of performance (COP) of the absorption refrigeration machine.

07 • The lower is the cooling water temperature; the higher are the refrigeration capacity and
08 the COP of the absorption refrigeration machine.

09 • There are a big potential for further research at this field to optimize the system operation
10 and to reduce the specific costs (€/kW cooling capacity).

11 Author details

12 Salman Ajib1* and Ali Alahmer2

13 *Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

14 1 Department of Renewable Energies and Decentralized Energy Supplying, Hochschule

15 Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Höxter, Germany

16 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tafila Technical University, Tafila, Jordan

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