Photosynthesis
in Higher Plants
Mind Map
By: Dr. Anand Mani
inCounse
INTRODUCTION
• Green plants synthesise the food they need, by photosynthesis
and all other organisms depend on them for their needs.
• Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which plants
use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds.
• The use of energy from sunlight by plants doing photosynthesis
is the basis of life on earth.
• Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons :
(a) It is the primary source of all food on earth and
(b) It is also responsible for the release of oxygen into the
atmosphere.
WHAT DO WE KNOW?
• Experiment for starch formation on variegated leaf or
a leaf the was partially covered with black paper &
exposed to light showed that photosynthesis occurred
only in green parts of leaves in the presence of light.
• Experiment where a part of leaf is enclosed in a test-
tube with some KOH soaked cotton (which absorbs
CO2). While other half is exposed to air and set-up
kept in light proved that CO2 is needed for
photosynthesis.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
(1) Joseph Priestley
Using a burning candle, a mouse, mint plant and a bell jar
for closed space, hypothesised that plants restore to the
air whatever burning candles or breathing animals remove.
(2) Jan Ingenhousz
In an elegant experiment with an aquatic plant, showed that
in bright sunlight is essential for plants to produce oxygen.
(3) Julius von Sachs
Found that glucose is made in green plant parts and stored
as starch.
(4) T.W. Engelmann
Using a prism, green alga Cladophora and aerobic bacteria,
described the action spectrum of photosynthesis, which
roughly resembles the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll-a
and b.
(5) Cornelius van Niel
o Demonstrated that photosynthesis is essentially a light dependent
reaction in which hydrogen from suitable oxidisable compound
reduces CO2 to carbohydrates.
o H2S is hydrogen donor for purple & green sulphur bacteria. H2O, the
hydrogen donor in green plants is oxidised to O2.
o The oxidation product is sulphur or sulphate in purple & green
sulphur bacteria and not O2. Hence it was inferred that O2 evolved by
green plants comes from H2O and not from CO2. This was later
proved by using radioisotopic techniques.
o The correct equation, for the overall process.
Light
6CO2+12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE
• In green parts of the plants, mainly in the mesophyll cells in the
leaves, which have large number of chloroplasts.
• Usually the chloroplasts align themselves along the walls of
mesophyll cells to get optimum quantity of the incident light.
CHLOROPLAST ALIGNMENT
PARALLEL PERPENDICULAR
• In low or optimum light • In extremely high light intensity to avoid
intensity to get maximum photo-oxidation.
incident light
There is a clear DIVISION OF LABOUR within the chloroplast.
CHLOROPLAST
MEMBRANOUS SYSTEM STROMA
• (Grana + Stroma lamellae). • Enzymatic reaction to synthesise
sugar, which in turn forms starch,
takes place.
• Responsible for trapping light & • Dependent on products of light
synthesis of ATP and NADPH. reactions (ATP & NADPH).
• Directly light driven, called LIGHT • By convention called DARK
REACTION (photochemical REACTIONS (Carbon reactions).
reactions).
Ø However, this should not be construed to mean that the dark reaction
occur in darkness or that they are not light-dependent.
HOW MANY TYPES OF PIGMENTS ARE
INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Leaf-pigments of any green plant
can be separated through paper
chromatography.
• The colour in leaves is due to four
pigments, that have the ability to
absorb light, at specific
wavelengths.
COLOUR OF THE PIGMENTS IN THE CHROMATOGRAM
• Chlorophyll-a = Bright or blue green
• Chlorophyll-b = Yellow-green
• Xanthophylls = Yellow
• Carotenoids = Yellow to yellow-orange
• The wavelength of light at which there is maximum
absorption by chlorophyll-a i.e., in blue and red
regions, also shows higher rate of photosynthesis.
• Hence, we can conclude that chlorophyll-a is the chief
pigment associated with photosynthesis.
• Chlorophyll-b, carotenoids and xanthophylls are
accessory pigments. They absorb light and transfer
the energy to chlorophyll-a. They enable a wider range
of wavelength of incoming light to be utilised for
photosynthesis and also protect chlorophyll-a from
photo-oxidation.
WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION?
• Light reactions or the photochemical phase include:
ü Light absorption
ü Water splitting
ü Oxygen release, and
ü ATP and NADPH formation
• Several protein complexes are involved in the process.
• The pigments are organised into two photosystems.
PHOTOSYSTEM
PS-I PS-II
LHC-I (Hundreds of pigments) LHC-II
Reaction
Reaction One molecule centre
centre Of chl-a
• Absorption peak at 700 nm (P700) • Absorption peak at 680 nm (P680)
Ø Named in sequence of their discovery and not in the sequence of their function.
THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT
• The whole scheme of transfer of electrons starting from
PS-II Uphill to the Down the Excitation of Transfer to
acceptor ETC to PS-I electrons another acceptor
Reducing it to NADPH
+ H+ is called the z- To Finally downhill
scheme, due to its NADP+
characteristic shape
This shape is formed when all the carriers are placed in a sequence on a redox potential
scale.
SPLITTING OF WATER
• PS-II continuously supplies electrons which becomes available by
splitting of water.
• Water splitting complex is associated with PS-II, which itself is physically
located on inner side of membrane of thylakoid.
• Water split into 2H+, [O] & electrons.
• This creates oxygen, one of the net products of photosynthesis.
CYCLIC AND NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
• When both PS-I and PS-II are involved, the process is non-cyclic,
producing ATP, NADPH+ + H+ and oxygen.
• When only PS-I is functional, cyclic flow takes place to produce
only ATP.
• A possible location for cyclic flow is the stroma lamellae
membranes which lack PS-II and NADP reductase enzyme.
• Cyclic photophosphorylation also occurs when only light of
wavelengths beyond 680 nm are available for excitation.
• The membrane or lamellae of the grana have both PS-I and PS-II.
CHEMIOSMOTIC-HYPOTHESIS
Ø ATP synthesis in photosynthesis is linked to the development of a proton
gradient across the membranes of thylakoid and protons accumulate in the
lumen of thylakoids.
Ø The proton gradient is caused by:
(a) Protons or hydrogen ions produced by splitting of
water, accumulate in the lumen of the thylakoids.
(b) The primary acceptor of electron located towards outer
side of membrane transfers its electron to an H carrier, which
removes a proton from stroma while transporting an electron
to thylakoid lumen.
(c) The NADP reductase enzyme located on stroma side of
membrane removes protons from stroma, while reducing
NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis
o Within chloroplast, protons decrease in stroma and accumulate in
lumen. This creates a proton- gradient across thylakoid
membrane as well as a measurable decrease in pH in the lumen.
o Breakdown of this gradient leads to synthesis of ATP, when
protons move across the membrane to the stroma through
transmembrane channel of the CF0 of the ATP
synthase.
ATP synthase (Two parts)
CF0 = Embedded in the CF1 = Protrudes on outer
thylakoid membrane. A surface of thylakoid membrane
transmembrane channel for on the side that faces stroma.
facilitated diffusion of protons It synthesize ATP.
Chemiosmosis requires- a membrane, a proton pump, a proton
gradient and ATP synthase.
WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?
• Of the products of light reaction- ATP, NADPH and O2, O2 diffuses out
of chloroplast while ATP and NADPH are used to synthesise sugars in
the biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis. Melvin Calvin used
radioactive 14C in algal photosynthesis studies to discover the first CO2
fixation product, the 3-C organic acid 3-Phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA)
(C3- pathway).
• In another group of plants, the first stable product was 4 carbon,
oxaloacetic acid OAA (C4-pathway).
THE CALVIN CYCLE
• The calvin cycle occurs in all photosynthetic plants; whether they
have C3 or C4 (or any other) pathways
• Calvin cycle can be described under three stages:
(1) CARBOXYLATION: Most crucial step.
RuBP RuBisCO 2 X 3-PGA
(5C) (3C)
CO2 +H2O
(2) REDUCTION: A series of reactions that lead to formation
of glucose. Utilizes 2 ATP and 2 NADPH per CO2.
(The fixation of 6CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are needed to
form one molecule of glucose from the pathway).
(3) REGENERATION: Regeneration of RUBP is crucial for
the cycle to continue. This step require one ATP. So, to
produce one molecule of glucose in Calvin cycle an input
of 6CO2 ,18 ATP and 12 NADPH are required.
THE C4-PATHWAY
• Plants adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4- pathway.
• C4-plants are special: They have special type of leaf anatomy,
tolerate higher temperatures, show response to high light
intensities, lack photorespiration and have greater biomass
productivity.
• C4-plants have leaves showing KRANZ ANATOMY the
particularly large cells around the vascular bundles, which
may form several layers and are called bundle sheath cells,
characterised by having a large number of chloroplasts, thick
walls impervious to gaseous exchange and no intercellular
spaces.
• The pathway is cyclic & called the Hatch and Slack Pathway.
It is partly completed in mesophyll & partly in bundle sheath
cell.
MESOPHYLL CELL BUNDLE SHEATH CELL
• Primary CO2 acceptor is • Malic Acid/Aspartic Acid
a 3-C compound PEP.
(Phosphoenol pyruvate).
CO2 3-Carbon
• Enzyme for this fixation molecule
is PEPcase or PEP
carboxylase. Transported to
mesophyll & converted
• Lacks RuBisCO enzyme. to PEP
• C4-acid formed is OAA;
which forms malic acid Enters-Calvin cycle a pathway
or aspartic acid and transported to common to all plants.
bundle sheath cells.
• Rich in RuBisCO but lack PEPcase.
PHOTORESPIRATION
• RuBisCo, the most abundant enzyme in the world, has
active site that can bind to both CO2 and O2. This binding is
competitive. It is the relative concentration of O2 and CO2
that determines which of the two will bind to the enzyme.
• RuBisCo, has a much greater affinity for CO2, when the CO2
: O2 is nearly equal than for O2.
• In C3 – plants some O2 does bind to RuBisCo, and hence
CO2 fixation is decreased, due to the following reaction.
RuBisCO
RuBP + O2 3PGA (3C) + 2 phosphoglycolate (2c)
This is called photorespiration.
• In photorespiration there is neither synthesis of
sugars, nor of ATP. It results in release of CO2
with utilisation of ATP.
• The biological function of photorespiration is
not known yet.
• In C4 plants photorespiration does not
occur, as they have a mechanism that
increases the concentration of CO2 at the
enzyme site. This ensures that the RuBisCO
functions as carboxylase minimising the
oxygenase activity.
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is under the influence of
several factors, both internal (plant) &
external.
Internal Factors:
• The plant factors include the number, size
age & orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells
and chloroplasts, internal CO2
concentration & the amount of chlorophyll.
• The plant or internal factors are dependent
on the genetic predisposition & growth of
the plant.
• External factors: Include availability of
sunlight, temperature, CO2 concentration
and water.
• Blackman’s Law of limiting Factor
If a chemical process is affected by more than one
factor, then its rate will be determined by the factor
which is nearest to its minimal value. It is the factor
which directly affects the process if its quality is
changed.
q Light: light saturation occurs at 10% of the full
sunlight. Except for plants in shade or in dense
forests, light is rarely a limiting factor in nature.
§ There is a linear relationship between incident
light & CO2 fixation rates at low light intensities.
At higher light intensities, gradually the rate does
not show further, increase as other factors
become limiting.
q CO2 Concentration:
§ Major limiting factor.
§ The concentration of CO2 is very low in the
atmosphere (0.03 & 0.04%), so increase in
concentration upto 0.05% can cause
increase in CO2 fixation rates, beyond this
levels it can become damaging over longer
periods.
§ At low light conditions neither group
responds to high CO2 conditions C4- plants
show saturation at 360 µ1L-1 while C3-
saturation is seen at 450 µ1L-1. Some
greenhouse crops like tomatoes and bell
pepper show higher yields in CO2 enriched
atmosphere.
q Temperature:
§ Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature
controlled.
§ Light reactions are also temperature sensitive.
§ C4- plants show higher yield at high temperature
while C3- plants have a much lower temperature
optimum.
q Water:
§ Effect of water as a factor is more through its
effect on the plant rather than directly on
photosynthesis.
§ Water stress causes the stomata to close
hence reducing CO2 availability.
§ Water stress also makes leaves wilt, thus
reducing the surface area of leaves and their
metabolic activity as well.
Early Experiments
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Where does Photosynthesis
Take Place?
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How Many Types of
Pigments are Involved in
3 Photosynthesis?
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4 What is Light Reaction?
43
5 The Electron Transport
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Where are the ATP and
6 NADPH Used?
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7 The C4 Pathway
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8 Photorespiration
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Factors Affecting
9 Photosynthesis
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THANK YOU
inCounse
79
