University

of Santo Tomas College of Architecture

Building Technology 3


REINFORCED CONCRETE, béton armé, • Concrete is not good in carrying tension and
ferroconcrete only the steel bars are carrying all the stresses
Concrete in which steel reinforcement is embedded due to bending which is tension
in such a manner that the two materials act • There must be no slippage between concrete
together in resisting forces and steel bars
historical note: In 1867, Joseph Monier (France)
Plain concrete used the concept of iron reinforcing bars when he
Concrete having no reinforcement, or reinforced reinforced William Ward’s (US) flower pots using
only for drying shrinkage or thermal stresses wire.

Ferrocement BEAM
Constructed of cement mortar over wire mesh that A rigid structural member designed to carry and
has been pre-shaped over a mold transfer transverse loads across space supporting
elements
Cast-in-place concrete, cast in-situ, in-situ concrete
Concrete which is deposited in the place where it is Simple beam
required to harden as part of the structure, as A beam having a single span supported at its end
opposed to pre-cast concrete without a restraint at the support

Reinforcement Semi-continuous beam
A system of steel bars, strands or wires for A beam with two spans with or without restraint at
absorbing tensile, shearing and sometimes the two extreme ends
compressive stresses in a concrete member or
structure Cantilever beam
A beam supported on one end and the other end
Deformed bar projecting beyond the support, beam or wall
A reinforcing bar hot-rolled with surface
deformations to develop a greater bond with Continuous beam
concrete A beam that rests on more than two supports

Tension reinforcement T-beam
Reinforcement designed to absorb tensile stresses Part of the floor and beam unit when poured
(tensile stress, normal stress, tension: resistance of simultaneously thereby producing a monolithic
an object to a force tending to tear it apart) structure where the portion of the slab at both
sides of the beam serves as flanges of such beam
Compression reinforcement
Reinforcement designed to absorb compressive Reinforced concrete beam
stresses (compressive strength is the maximum A concrete beam designed to act together with
compressive stress that, under a gradually applied longitudinal and web reinforcement in resisting
load, a given solid material can sustain without applied forces, formed and placed along with the
fracture) slab it supports

Balanced section Beam Nomenclature:
A concrete section in which the tension
reinforcement theoretically reaches its specified Effective Depth of Section
yield strength as the concrete in compression The depth of a concrete section measured from the
reaches its assumed ultimate strain. A design so compression face to the centroid of the tension
proportional such that the maximum stresses in reinforcement.
the concrete and steel are reached simultaneously
so that they fail together. Bar Spacing
The center-to-center spacing of parallel bars, the
Over-reinforced section resulting clear distance between the bars being
A concrete section in which the concrete in regulated by bar diameter, maximum size of coarse
compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain aggregate, and thickness of the concrete section.
before the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength. This is a dangerous Span of Supports
condition since failure of the section could occur Refers to the distances between posts, columns or
instantaneously without warning. This type of supporting walls.
design is not advisable because concrete fails
abruptly in compression. Concrete Layer, Concrete Cover
The amount of concrete required to protect steel
Under-reinforced section reinforcement from fire and corrosion, measured
A concrete section in which the tension from the surface of the reinforcement to the outer
reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength surface of the concrete section.
before the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain. This is a desirable Bond
condition since failure of the section would be The adhesion between two substances, as concrete
preceded by large deformations, giving prior and reinforcing bar
warning of impending collapse. In this particular
type of design, the steel fails first while the Bond Stress
concrete has not yet reached its allowable values The adhesive force per unit area of contact
but the failure is gradual with steel yielding. between a reinforcing bar and the surrounding
concrete developed at any section of a flexural
Assumptions in Elastic Theory in Concrete member.
• Plane section remains plane before and after
bending occurs Developmental Length
• Concrete is elastic; that is the stress of concrete The length of the embedded reinforcement
varies from zero at the neutral axis to a required to develop the design strength of
maximum at the extreme fibers reinforcement at a critical section

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
1
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
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 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


• Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cements
Embedment Length (ASTM C 595), excluding Types S and SA which
Length of embedded reinforcement provide are not intended as principal constituents of
beyond a critical section structural concrete

End Anchorage Admixtures
Length of reinforcement or mechanical anchor or • Admixtures to be used in concrete shall be
hook or combination thereof beyond point of zero subject to prior approval by the Engineer
stress in reinforcement • An admixture shall be shown capable of
maintaining essentially the same composition
Hook and performance throughout the work as the
A bend or curve given to the end of a tension bar to product used in establishing concrete
develop an equivalent embedment length, used proportions
where there is sufficient room to develop an • Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not
embedment length be used in pre-stressed concrete containing
aluminum embedments if their use will
Longitudinal Reinforcement produce deleterious concentration of chloride
Reinforcement essentially parallel to the horizontal in the mixing water
surface of a slab or to the long axis of a concrete
beam or column Concrete aggregates shall conform to one of the
following specifications:
Percentage Reinforcement • Specifications for Concrete Aggregates (ASTM C
The ratio of effective area of reinforcement to 33)
effective area of concrete at any section of a • Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for
reinforced concrete member, expressed as a Structural Concrete (ASTM C 330)
percentage
Nominal maximum size of aggregates shall not be
Top Bar larger than:
Any of the longitudinal bars serving as tension • 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of
reinforcement in the section of a concrete beam or forms, nor
slab subject to a negative moment • 1/3 the depth of slabs, nor

• 3/4 the maximum clear spacing between
Bottom Bar
individual reinforcing bars, or pre-stressing
Any of the longitudinal bars serving as tension
tendons or ducts
reinforcement in the section of a concrete beam or

slab subject to a positive moment
Water

• Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean
Web Reinforcement
and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids,
Reinforcement consisting of bent bars or stirrups,
alkalis, salts, organic materials, or other
places in a concrete beam to resist diagonal tension
substances that may be deleterious to concrete

or reinforcement.
Bent Bar
• Mixing water for pre-stressed concrete or
A longitudinal bar bent to an angle of 30* or more
concrete that will contain aluminum
with the axis of the concrete beam, perpendicular
embedments, including that portion of mixing
to and intersecting the cracking that could occur
water contributed in the form of free moisture
from diagonal tension
on aggregates shall not contain deleterious

amounts of chloride ions.
Bend Reinforcing Bars

Reinforcing bars that are bent up on or near the
Metal Reinforcement
inflection point are extended at the top of the beam
across the support towards the adjacent span • Reinforcement shall be deformed
reinforcement, except that consisting of

structural steel, steel pipe, steel tubing may be
No Bent Bars
used.
Bars that are not bent, an additional straight
reinforcing bar place on the top of the beam across • Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated
the supports to the required length and other in the drawings and welding procedure to be
straight additional bars are also placed at the used shall be specified.
bottom center of the beam span where positive
moment develops
Reinforcement Details
Truss Bar
A longitudinal bar bent up or down at points of Standard Hook
moment reversal in a reinforced concrete beam A 90°, 135° or 180° bend made at the end of a
reinforcing bar according to industry standards
Stirrup with radius based on the bar diameter.
Any of the U-shaped or closed-loop bars placed
perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement of Standard Hooks (NSCP, 4th ed. 1992)
a concrete beam to resist the vertical component of • 180° bend plus 4db extension, but not less than
diagonal tension 65 mm at free end of bar.
• 90° bend plus 12db extension, at free end of
bar.

BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR
For Stirrups and Tie Hooks
REINFORCED CONCRETE (ACI 318-77)
• 16 mm bar and smaller, 90° bend plus 6db
Standard for Tests and Materials: extension at free end of bar.
• 20 mm bar and 25 mm, 90° plus 12db
Cement shall conform to one of the following extension at free end of bar.
specifications for Portland Cement: • 25 mm bar and smaller, 135° bend plus 6db
• Specifications for Portland Cement (ASTM 150) extension at free end of bar.

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
2
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
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 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


o Bar larger than 32 mm shall not be bundled
Minimum Bend Diameters in beams.
• Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the o Individual bars within a bundle terminated
bar other than for stirrups and tie4s in sizes within the span of flexural members shall
10mm through 15mm diameter, shall not be terminate at different points with at least
less than indicated on the table below. 40db, stagger.
• Inside diameter of bend for stirrups and ties o Where spacing limitations and minimum
shall not be less than 4db for 16 mm and concrete cover are based on bar diameter
smaller. db, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as
• Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric a single bar of diameter derived from the
(plain or deformed) for stirrups and ties shall equivalent total area.
not be less than 4db for deformed wire larger
than D6 and 2db for all other wires. Bends with Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
inside diameter of less than 8db shall not be Cast in place Concrete Minimum
less than 4db from nearest welded intersection. (Non-prestressed) Cover (mm)
Concrete cast against and permanently 75
Minimum Diameters of Bend exposed to earth
Bar Size Minimum Diameter Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
10 mm to 25 mm 6db 20 mm through 36mm bars
28 mm to 32 mm 8db 16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller 50
36 mm 10db 40
Concrete not exposed to weather or in
Bending contact with ground:
• All reinforcement shall be bent cold, unless Slabs, Walls, Joists, 32 mm bar and 20
otherwise permitted by the Engineer. smaller
• Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete Beams, Columns:
shall not be field bent, except as shown on the Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, 40
drawings or permitted by the Engineer. spirals
Shell, Folded Plate members:
Surface Conditions of Reinforcement 20 mm bar and larger 20
• At time concrete is placed, metal reinforcement 16 mm bar, W31 or D31 Wire and smaller 15
shall be free from mud, oil or other nonmetallic
coatings that adversely affect bonding capacity.
Precast Concrete (Manufactured Under Minimum
• Metal reinforcement, except pre-stressing
Plant Control Conditions) Cover (mm)
tendons, with rust, mill scale, or a combination
of both shall be considered satisfactory, Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
provided minimum dimensions and weight of a Wall panels:
hand-wire-brushed test specimen are not less 32 mm bar and smaller
than applicable ASTM specifications 20
requirements. Other members:
20 mm through 32mm bar 40
Placing Reinforcements 16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller 30
• Reinforcement, pre-stressing tendons and Concrete not exposed to weather or in
ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately contact with ground:
supported before concrete is placed, and shall Slabs, Walls, Joists:
be secured against displacement within 32 mm bar and smaller 15
tolerable limits. Beams, Columns: db but not
• Welding of cross bars shall not be permitted for Primary Reinforcement less than 15
assembly of reinforcement unless otherwise and need not
authorized by the Engineer. exceed 40
Ties, Stirrups, Spirals 10
Spacing Limits for Reinforcements Shell, Folded Plate members:
1. The minimum clear spacing between parallel 20 mm bar and larger 15
bars in a layer shall be db, but not less than 25 16 mm bar, W31 or D31 Wire and smaller 10
mm.
2. Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two
or more layers, bars in the upper layer shall be Prestressed Concrete Minimum
placed directly above bars in the bottom layer Cover (mm)
with clear distance between layers not less than Concrete cast against and permanently 75
25 mm. exposed to earth
3. In spirally reinforced or tied reinforced Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
compression members, clear distance between Wall Panels, Slabs, Joists
longitudinal bars shall not be less than 1.5db Other Members 25
nor more than 40 mm. 40
4. Clear distance limitation between bars shall Concrete not exposed to weather or in
apply also to the clear distance between a contact with ground:
contact tap splice and adjacent splices or bars. Slabs, Walls, Joists 20
5. In walls and slabs other than concrete joist Beams, Columns:
construction, primary flexural reinforcement Primary Reinforcement 40
shall be spaced not farther than three times the Ties, Stirrups, Spirals 25
wall or slab thickness nor more than 450 mm. Shell, Folded Plate members:
6. Bundled bars shall be done in the following 16 mm bar, W31 or D31 Wire and smaller 10
manner: Other Reinforcement
o Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled db but not
in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to less than 20
four in any one bundle. Source: National Structural Code of the Philippine (NSCP)
o Bundled bars shall be enclosed within
stirrups or ties.

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
3
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


than 75 mm below lowest reinforcement in
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN shallowest of such beams or brackets.
A concrete designed to act together with vertical
and lateral reinforcement in resisting applied ACI Specification for Axially Loaded Tied Columns
forces. Reinforced concrete column constituting the Particulars Remarks
principal supports for a floor or roof should have a Min. Cross sectional area of 60,000mm2
minimum diameter of 10 in (254 mm) or if column Ag
rectangular in section, a minimum thickness of 8 in Minimum thickness of 200mm
(203 mm) and a minimum gross area of 96 sq. in column
(61935 sq. mm). Minimum covering of ties 1. Not less than 40 mm
2. Not less than 1.5 times
Short Column the max. size of
A column having an unsupported height not coarse aggregate
greater than 10 times the shortest lateral Minimum diameter of lateral 10mm diameter
dimension of the cross section ties
Lateral ties spacing 1. Not more than 16 bar
Long Column diameter
When the unsupported height is more than 10 2. Not more than 48 tie
times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross diameter
section 3. Not more than the
least dimension of
Tied Column column
A concrete column reinforced with vertical bars Clear distance between Not less than 1.5 times the
and individual lateral ties. Lateral ties should have horizontal bars bar diameter nor less than
a diameter of at least 10 mm (3/8 in.) spaced apart 1.5 times the max. size of
not more than 48 tie diameters, 16 bar diameters aggregates
or the least dimension of the column section Minimum number of bars 4-16 mm diameter
Pg (ratio of glass reinf. area 0.01 – 0.04
Vertical Reinforcement to cross sectional area)
Longitudinal reinforcement placed in concrete Source: American Concrete Institute (ACI)
column to absorb compressive stresses, resist
bending stresses and reduce the effects of creep Spiral Column
and shrinkage in the column. A concrete column with spiral reinforcement
enclosing a circular core reinforced with vertical
Lateral Reinforcement bars.
Spiral reinforcement or lateral ties placed in a
concrete column to laterally restrain the vertical Lateral Reinforcement for Compression Members -
reinforcement and prevent buckling. Spiral Reinforcement
1. Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced
Spiral Reinforcement continuous bar or wire of such size and so
Lateral reinforcement consisting of an evenly assembled to permit handling and placing
spaced continuous spiral held firmly in place by without distortion from designed dimensions.
vertical spacers. 2. For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals
shall not be less than 10 mm diameter.
Bundled Reinforcement 3. Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed
Reinforcement employed consisting of two to four 75 mm nor less than 25 mm
bars tied in direct contact with each other to serve 4. Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be
or act as one unit reinforcement placed at the provided by 1 ½ extra turns of spiral bar or
corner of lateral ties. wire at each end of a spiral unit.
5. Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap
splices of 48db but not less than 300 mm of
Lateral Reinforcement for Compression Members - welded.
Lateral Ties 6. Spirals shall extend from top of footing or slab
1. All non-pre-stressed bars shall be enclosed by in any story to level of lowest horizontal
lateral ties, at least 10 mm in size for reinforcement in members supported above.
longitudinal bars 32 mm or smaller, and at least 7. Where beams or brackets do not frame into all
12mm in size for 36 mm and bundled sides of a column, ties shall extend above
longitudinal bars. Deformed ire or welded wire termination of spiral to bottom of slab or drop
fabric of equivalent area is allowed. panel.
2. Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 8. In columns with capital, spirals shall extend to a
longitudinal bar diameter, 48 tie diameters, or level at which the diameter or width of capital
least dimension of the compression member. is two times that of the columns.
3. Ties shall be arranged such that every corner 9. Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to
and alternate longitudinal bar have lateral line.
support provided by the corner of a tie with an
included angle of not more than 135 degrees ACI Specification for Axially loaded Spiral Column
and no bar shall be farther than 150 mm clear Particulars Remarks
on each side along the tie from such a laterally Minimum diameter 250mm
supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are Minimum diameter of spiral 10mm diameter
located around the perimeter of a circle, a ties
complete circular tie is allowed. Spacing of spiral ties 1. Not more than 75mm
4. Ties shall be located vertically not more than 2. Not less than 25mm
1/2 a tie spacing above the top of footing or 3. Not less than 1.5 times
slab in any story, and shall be spaced as the size of course
provided herein to not more than 1/2 a tie aggregates
spacing below the lowest horizontal 4. 1/6 core diameter
reinforcement in slab or drop panel above. Minimum number of bars 6-16 mm diameter
5. Where beams or brackets frame four directions Clear distance between 1. Not less than 1.5 times
into a column, ties may be terminated not more longitudinal bars bar diameter

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
4
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


2. Not less than 1.5 times distance between the two positions is not more
max. size of coarse than 75mm (3 inches). In crimping or offsetting
aggregate the bars, the angle of bend shall not be more
Pg (ratio of gross reinf. area 0.01-0.08 than one horizontal to six vertical (1:6). Extra
to gross cross sectional lateral tiles shall be provided at the lower end
area of column) of the bend to carry at least 1.25 of the outside
Source: American Concrete Institute (ACI) thrust caused by the inclined position of the
bar, and this may be satisfied by providing at
Composite Column least two extra hoops to hold the bent bars at
A type of column where structural steel is the beginning of the bend, these hoops spaced
embedded into the concrete core of a spiral column close together.
5. Lateral ties and spirals shall be provided for the
Combined Column vertical bars of the column within the depth of
A column with a structural steel encased in a the beams and/or girders at the intersection
concrete of at least 7cm thick reinforced with wire with the column and spaced not more than 0.10
mesh surrounding the column at a distance of 3 cm meters on centers.
inside the outer surface of the concrete covering.
Minimum Thickness of Non-pre-stressed Beams
Lally Column
A fabricated post made of steel provided with a Notes on Concrete Beams
plain flat steel bar or plate, which holds girder, girt 1. The clear distance from the bar to the farther
or beam. The steel pipe is sometimes filled with face of the wall shall not be less than 4 bar
concrete for additional strength and protection diameters (4db) if reinforcing bars end in a
from rust or corrosion wall.
2. Bars may be bundled in twos, threes, fours, as
Special Reinforcement Details for Columns indicated on drawings, such bundled bars shall
be securely wired together to prevent them
Offset Bars from separating.
1. The slope of an inclined portion of an offset bar 3. Use 25mm separator at 1m apart for two or
with axis of column shall not exceed 1 in 6. more layers of reinforcing bars, with the bars
2. Portions of bar above and below an offset shall not bundled.
be parallel to axis of column. 4. Beam reinforcing bars supporting slab
3. Horizontal support at offset bends shall be reinforcement shall be 25mm clear from the
provided by lateral ties, spirals or parts of floor bottom of the finish. The clear concrete
construction. Horizontal support provided shall covering between the face of the beam at the
be designed to resist 1 ½ times the horizontal bottom of the sides shall be 350mm.
component of the computed force in the 5. When the beam crosses a girder, rest beam bars
inclined portion of an offset bar. Lateral ties or on top of girder bars.
spirals, if used shall be placed not more than 6. Beam reinforcing bars shall be symmetrical
150mm from points of bend. about the vertical axis whenever possible, and
4. Offset bars shall be bent before placement of about the center line at mid-span except for end
forms. spans and where otherwise shown.
5. When a column is offset 75 mm or greater, 7. Stirrups for rectangular beams without flanges
longitudinal bars shall not be offset bent. shall be closed stirrups. Stirrups for tee beams
Separate dowels, lap splices with the with flanges on one side only shall likewise be
longitudinal bars adjacent to the offset column closed stirrup. Stirrups for tee beams with
faces shall be provided. flanges on both sides may be U stirrups. U
stirrups may be placed alternating inverted and
Notes on Concrete Columns upright position.
1. Columns shall be of the sizes indicated in the
schedule or as detailed in drawings and
reinforced as shown, with deformed bars only.
Vertical bars of columns shall have 90° bend FLOOR SYSTEM
and anchored at the supporting footing or other The horizontal planes that supports both live loads
supporting member. and dead loads and transfer their loads
2. Concrete protective covering from the face to horizontally across to a beam, column or to load-
the reinforcing steel shall be 40 mm. Splices of bearing walls.
verticals bars shall be staggered as much as
possible, located preferably at the middle half Live load
of the column height. Not more than alternate Refers to those movable loads imposed on the floor
bars shall be spliced at any one level bar splices such as people, furniture and the like.
may be lapped splices, or electrically butt-
welded that can develop the full capacity of the Dead load
bar. Refers to the static load such as the weight of the
3. The spacing of lateral ties shown in the construction materials, which generally carry the
schedule are maximum spacing which shall be live load.
used only outside the heights and away for
joints, where a reduced spacing of not more Environmental load
than 0.10 meter on center is required. The Consists of wind pressure and suction, earthquake
distance which is measured upward from top of load, rainwater on flat roof and forces caused by
footing or floor lines, and downward from temperature changes or differentials.
bottom and deepest beam or girder, shall be the
largest of the following: (a) maximum column; Reinforced Concrete Slab
(b) one-sixth (1/6) of the clear of the column; A rigid planar structure of concrete designed to act
and (c) 457mm (18 inches) together with principal and secondary
4. If the column is reduced in size at an upper reinforcements in resisting applied forces.
floor, the vertical bars of the column from the
lower floor may be crimped of offset to the new Slab Nomenclature:
position at the upper column if the horizontal

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
5
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Principal Reinforcement • S/L > 0.5, it is two-way slab
Reinforcement designed to absorb the stress from • Min. thickness t = Perimeter/180
applied loads and moments. • Max. spacing of main bars = 3t not > 450mm
• Spacing of bars within column strip is 3/2
Shrinkage Reinforcement, Temperature times the spacing at the center
reinforcement
Reinforcement placed perpendicular to the Beam-and-Girder Slab
principal reinforcement in a one-way slab to A one-way slab supported by secondary beams
absorb the stresses resulting from shrinkage or which turn are supported by primary beams of
changes in temperature. girders.

Concrete Topping Continuous Slab
A thin layer of high-quality concrete placed over a A reinforced concrete slab extending as structural
concrete to form a floor surface. unit over three or more supports in a given
direction. A continuous slab is subject to lower
Bonding Layer bending moments than a series of discrete, simply
A thin layer of mortar spread on a moistened and supported slabs.
prepared existing concrete surface prior to laying a
new concrete slab. Flat Plate
A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in
Expansion Joint two or more directions and supported directly by
A joint or gap between adjacent parts of a building columns without beams or girders. Flat plates are
or structure or concrete work which permits their suitable for short to medium spans with relatively
relative movement due to temperature changes (or light live loads. Since there no column capitals or
other conditions) without rupture or damage. (Also drop panels, shear governs the thickness of a flat
called contraction joint) plate.

Construction Joint Flat Slab
A joint where two successive placements of A flat plate thickened at its column supports with
concrete meet column moment-resisting capacity. Flat slabs are
suitable for heavy loaded spans.
Isolation Joint
Often called Expansion joint, it allows movement Waffle Slab
between concrete slab and adjoining columns and A two-way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two
walls of a building. directions. Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier
loads and spans longer distances than flat slabs.
Control Joint Supporting beams and drop panels can be formed
Joint that creates lines of weakness so that cracking by omitting the dome form in selected areas.
that may result from tensile stress occurs along
predetermined lines. Type of Recommended Floor System
Load
One-way slab Light to One-Way Slab
A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in medium (6-8’) 1830-5490 mm
one direction and cast integrally with parallel Light to One-Way Joist Slab
supporting beams. One-way slabs are suitable only medium (15’ – 36’) 4000 – 10 000 mm
for relatively short spans. The reinforcement in the Medium Two-Way Slab & Beam
slab runs in one direction only, from beam to beam. to heavy (15’ – 40’) 4.5 – 12 meters
Maximum spacing of the main reinforcing bars
Heavy Two-Way Waffle Slab
should not exceed 3 times the thickness of slab nor
(24’ – 54’) 7 – 16 meters
450 mm while the maximum spacing of
Light Two-Way Flat Slab
temperature bars is five times the slab thickness
(20’ – 40’) 6 – 12 meters
not more than 450 mm.
Light to Two-Way Flat Plate
• Min. main reinforcing bars = 12 mm Ø
medium (12’ – 24’) 3.6 – 7 meters
• Min. Temperature bars = 10 mm Ø

• Max. spacing of main bars not > than 3 times
thickness of slab or 450 mm
Precast Concrete Slabs
• Max. spacing of temperature bars not < 5 times A concrete slab member or product that is cast and
thickness of slab or 450 mm cured in a place other than where it is to be
• Steel Covering = 20 mm installed in a structure.
• Clear distance from center of reinforcing bars
to the bottom of slab = 25 mm Solid Flat Slab
• Temperature bars: A precast, pre-stressed concrete plank suitable for
• As = 0.002 bt for Grade 300 (fy = 300 MPa) short spans and uniformly distributed floor and
• As = 0.0018 bt for Grade 400 (fy = 400 MPa) roof loads.
• Minimum Thickness of One Way Slab
• Simply Supported = L/20 Hollow-core Slab
• One end continuous = L/24 A precast, pre-stressed concrete plank internally
• Both ends continuous = L/28 cored to reduce dead weight. Hollow-core slabs are
• Cantilevered = L/10 suitable for medium to long spans and uniformly
• When S/L < 0.5, it is one way slab, where: S – distributed floor and roof loads.
shorter span
Single Tee
Two-way Slab A precast, pre-stressed concrete slab having a
A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in broad, T-shaped section
two directions and cast integrally with supporting
edge beams or bearing walls on four sides. Two- Double Tee
way slabs are economical for medium spans with A precast, pre-stressed concrete slab having two
intermediate to heavy loads. stems and a broad cross section resembling the
capital letters TT

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
6
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3



Inverted Tee Foundation Engineering applies the knowledge of
A precast, pre-stressed ledger beam having a cross soil mechanics, rock mechanics, geology and
section resembling an inverted capital T structural engineering to the design and
construction of foundation for buildings and other
L-beam structures.
A precast, pre-stressed ledger beam having a cross
section resembling the capital letter L Shallow Foundation
A foundation system type, which is employed when
Ledger Beam stable soil of adequate bearing capacity occurs
A reinforced concrete beam having projecting relatively near to the ground surface, they are
ledges for receiving the ends of joists or slabs placed directly below the lowest part of the
substructure and transfer building loads directly to
Notes on Concrete Slabs the supporting soil by vertical pressure.
1. All slab reinforcement shall be 0.02 m clear
from the bottom and 0.015 clear from the top of Deep Foundation
slab, unless otherwise indicated or stated in A foundation system type employed when the soil
code. underlying a foundation is unstable to transfer
2. In two-way slabs, the bars along the short span building loads. To a more appropriate bearing
shall be at the lower layer for bottom bars, and stratum of rock or dense sand and gravel well
at upper layer for top bars so that the bars below the superstructure.
along the shorter span shall have the bigger
effective depth, unless otherwise detailed or Footing
noted due to the continuity of bars adjoining That part of the foundation bearing directly upon
spans. the supporting soil, set below the natural grade line
3. In two-slabs, if the top reinforcement over a and enlarged to distribute its load over a greater
common support of two adjacent spans are area.
different, the smaller spacing shall be followed
at that common support. Tie Beam, Footing Tie Beam, Grade Beam
4. Slab reinforcement shall rest on the A reinforced concrete beam distributing the
reinforcement of the supporting beams. horizontal forces from an eccentrically loaded pile
5. Bars shall be spliced only where indicated on cap or spread footing to other pile caps or footings;
details. Straight continuous bars in slabs may a reinforced concrete beam supporting a
be spliced (lapped or welded) at supports for superstructure at a near a ground level and
bottom bars and at mid-span for top bars. transferring the load to isolated footings, piers, or
piles.
Notes on Concrete Walls
1. All walls to be reinforced according to the Superstructure
schedule provided in the working That part of a building or structure, which is above
drawing shall be observed unless the level of the adjoining ground or the level of the
otherwise specified or indicated on foundation
drawings.
2. Reinforcing bars shall be 0.03 m. clear Substructure
from the face of the wall except in 0.10 m The underlying structure forming the foundation of
wall where they shall be at the center, a building or other construction.
unless otherwise detailed.
Substratum
Something that underlies or serves as a base or
Schedule or Wall Reinforcement foundation
Wall Vertical Horizontal Remarks
Thickness Soil Pressure, Contact Pressure
0.10 m. 10 mm at 10 mm at At center, hor. The actual pressure developed between the footing
0.30 m. 0.30 m. Staggered and the supporting soil mass, equal to the quotient
0.15 m. 10 mm at 10 mm at Both faces, vert. of the magnitude of the forces and the area of
0.30 m. 0.30 m. Outside contact.
0.20 m. 10 mm at 10 mm at Both faces, vert.
0.30 m. 0.25 m. Outside Passive Soil Pressure
0.25m 12 mm at 10 mm at Both faces, hor. The horizontal component of resistance developed
0.30 m. 0.25 m. Outside by a soil mass against the horizontal movement of a
0.30 12 mm at 12 mm at Both faces, hor. vertical structure through the soil. It occurs usually
0.30 m. 0.30 m. Outside at the side of retaining walls between the walls and
0.35 12 mm at 12 mm at Both faces, hor. the surrounding soil.
0.30 m. 0.30 m. Outside
0.40 12 mm at 12 mm at Both faces, hor. Active Soil Pressure
0.30 m. 0.25 m. Outside The horizontal component of pressure that a soil
0.45 16 mm at 12 mm at Both faces, hor. mass exerts on a vertical retaining wall.
0.30 m. 0.25 m. Outside
0.50 16 mm at 16 mm at Both faces, hor. Allowable Bearing Pressure, Allowable Bearing
0.30 m. 0.30 m. Outside Capacity, Allowable Soil Pressure
The maximum unit pressure of a foundation is
permitted to impose vertically or laterally on a
FOUNDATION supporting soil mass.
The lowest division of a building, its substructure,
or other construction partly or wholly below the Base Course
surface of the ground; designed to support and A layer of course granular materials placed and
anchor the superstructure above and directly to compacted on undisturbed soil prepared fill to
the earth; That part of the structure that supports prevent the capillary rise of moisture to a concrete
the weight of the structure and transmits the load ground slab.
to underlying soil or rock.

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
7
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Consolidation underground water pump where the pipe is
The gradual reduction in the volume of a soil mass cleaned by wash pipe and water.
resulting from the application of a sustained load
and an increase in compressive stress Hollow Stem Auger Boring Method
A truck mounted driving rig turns the auger to a
Primary Consolidation depth of more than 60 meters using continuous
A reduction volume of a soil mass under the action flights of auger with a hollow stem where samples
of a sustained load, due chiefly to a squeezing out of soil can be retrieved. It has an auger with sizes
of water from the voids within the mass and a ranging from 60 mm to 80 mm diameter.
transfer of the load from the soil water to the soil
solids. Also called Primary Compression. Rotary Drilling
Employed as one of the most efficient and
Secondary Consolidation convenient method of soil sample retrieval method
A reduction in volume of a soil mass under the and used for soil structure characterized by high
action of a sustained load, due chiefly to the resistant materials such as rocks, clay as well as
adjustment of the internal structure of the soil sand. Rotary boring diameter ranges from 50 mm
mass after most of the load has been transferred to 200 mm.
from the soil water to soil solids.
Percussion Drilling Method
Settlement Sometimes called Cable Tool Drilling Method, used
The gradual subsiding of the structure as the soil when boring or auger method is not possible due to
beneath its foundation consolidates under loading. difficulty in penetration of soil especially hard soil
strata
Differential Settlement
The relative movement of parts of a structure Penetrometer
caused by uneven settlement underlying soil or This is a device used to investigate the consistency
failure of its foundation of cohesive deposit or relative density of cohesion
less strata without the necessity of drilling and
obtaining samples. Static penetration is
Allowable Bearing Capacity of Various Solids characterized by consistent and uniform force or
Soil Pounds Kgs. per Kilo- Tons pressure application and Dynamic penetration
Classification per [Link]. sqm. pascal per when driven into the soil.
(psf) (Kpa) [Link]. Standard penetration test is done by dropping a 60
Alluvial soil 1,000 4,891 54 0.5 kg. hammer into a drill hole from a height of 700
Soft clay 2,000 9,782 107 1 mm, the number of blows to make a penetration of
Firm clay 4,000 19,564 215 2 300 mm is regarded as the penetration resistance.
Wet sand 4,000 19,564 215 2
Sand & clay 4,000 19,564 215 2 Dutch Cone Penetration Method
mixed A 60 degree cone with a base area of 100 sq. mm is
Firm dry sand 6,000 29,345 322 3 used in this method. This is attached to the tip of a
Coarse dry 8,000 39,128 430 4 rod and protected by a casing. The cone is pushed
sand by the rod into the ground; the cone is slightly
Gravel 12,000 58,690 644 6 larger than the pipe in order to minimize friction
Gravel & sand 16,000 78,256 860 8 between the tool and the surrounding soil.
well cemented
Hardpan or 20,000 97,818 1,073 10 Vane Shear Test
hard shale The vane device for shear testing of clay soil in
Medium rock 40,000 195,636 2,681 25 place consists of four vertical rectangular blades at
Rock under 50,000 244,545 2,681 25 right angles to vertical shaft. The vane is then
caissons pushed into the soil and twisted until the soil is
Hard rock 160,000 782,545 8,580 80 ruptured in a cylindrical form; shear strength is
computed from the maximum moment needed to
Soil Test rupture the soil and thereby obtaining soil sample.
Foundation design is primarily based on the result
of subsurface investigation. The technical Standard Load Test
personnel have to make a reasonably accurate The following is an outline of the load test
conception of the physical properties and procedure as follows;
arrangement of this underlying soil. 1. Dug to the depth of the soil to be tested usually
at the proposed footing level.
Types of Soil Testing and Investigation Methods 2. The pit width should be at least five times the
load plate width.
Auger Boring Method 3. The square load plate with a general dimension
An auger is used for this purpose where a hole is of 300 mm x 600 mm is set on a leveled bottom
bored on the ground. Two types of auger may be of the pit.
used, the Helical or Post Hole Auger. Portable 4. Load on top of the plate must be placed on the
helical augers are available from 80 to 300 mm. In pit bed and a platform loaded with concrete
diameter and used for making deeper holes blocks or bags of cement on top must be
provided.
Wash Boring Method
This method employs the use of a piece of metal General Guidelines in Foundation Systems Design
tube 50 mm to 100 mm in diameter, used to bore 1. Depth must be adequate to avoid lateral
hole with depths ranging from 1.50 m to 3.0 m. The expulsion of material from beneath the
tube or casing is cleared of the soil sample by foundation, particularly footings and mats.
chopping bit to the lower portion of the wash pipe 2. Depth must be below temperature volume
by means of a high velocity pump to rinse the changes or within the zone of active organic
fragments of the soil through the annular space materials.
between the tube and the wash pipe. This method 3. System must be safe against overturning,
is similar to the process of installing an rotation, sliding or soil rupture (shear strength
failure).

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
8
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


4. System must be safe against corrosion or A reinforced concrete footing connected by a tie
deterioration due to harmful materials present beam to another footing in order to balance an
in the soil. asymmetrically imposed load, as at the perimeter
5. System should adequate to sustain some of a building site.
changes in later site or construction geometry
or be easily modified should later changes be Mat Foundation
major in scope. A thick, slab-like heavily reinforced concrete
6. The foundation should be economical in terms footing supporting a number of columns or an
of the methods of installation or construction. entire building.
7. Total earth movements (generally settlements)
and differential movements should he tolerable Ribbed Mat
for the foundation element and / or any A mat foundation reinforced by a grid of ribs above
superstructure elements. or below the slab.

Cellular Mat
Types of Footing and Foundation Systems A composite structure of reinforced concrete slabs
and basement walls serving as a mat foundation.
Isolated Footing
A single spread footing supporting a freestanding Raft Foundation
column or pier. A mat providing a footing on yielding soil, usually
for an entire building, placed so that the weight of
Spread Footing the displaced soil exceeds the weight of the
A concrete footing extended laterally to distribute construction.
the foundation load over a wide enough area that
the allowable bearing capacity of supporting soil is Grillage/Grid Foundation
not exceeded. A framework of crossing beam for spreading heavy
loads over large areas
Square Block Footing
• Mid-Footing Floating Foundation
• Corner Footing A foundation used in yielding soil, having for its
• Edge Footing footing a raft placed deep enough that the weight of
excavated soil is equal to or greater than the weight
Square Sloped Footing of the construction supported.
A type of isolated footing having inclined top,
sloping towards the edges. Pile Foundation
A system of piles, pile caps, and tie beams for
Stepped Footing transferring building loads down to a suitable
A type of footing that changes levels in stages to bearing stratum, used especially when the soul
accommodate a sloping grade and maintain the mass directly below the construction is not suitable
required depth at all points around a building with for the direct bearing of footings.
the center having the thickest part of the building.
Pile Cap
Rectangular Footing A footing-like member, which joins the head of a
A footing, rectangular in plan, and supporting load cluster of piles in order to distribute the load from
of unequal magnitudes in both axes a column or grade beam equally among the piles

Combined Footing Precast Socket Foundation
A reinforced concrete footing for a perimeter A type of precast footing provided with a socket to
column or foundation wall extended to support an receive a precast column.
interior column load.
Wall Footing
Rectangular Combined Footing A continuous type of footing intended to support as
A type of combined footing rectangular in plan and well as transmit the load imposed by the wall
supporting two columns. Column loads are directly to the ground.
assumed to be of the same magnitude.

Trapezoidal Combined Footing PILE FOUNDATION
Column loads on this type of footing are assumed A type of foundation system used when foundation
to be of unequal magnitude. bed is too weak to support the raft or mat or any
other type of footing; used to transfer excess load
Footing Tie Beam to a greater depth and stratum having suitable
A type of beam-like footing placed underneath the foundation
ground in order to transmit and provide additional
rigidity to two or more columns. Pile
A long slender column of wood, steel, or reinforced
Grade Beam concrete, driven or hammered vertically into the
Reinforced concrete beam supporting a bearing earth to form a part of a foundation system.
wall at or near the ground level; and transferring
the load to isolated footings, piers or piles. End bearing Pile
A pile depending principally on the bearing
Continuous Footing resistance of soil or rock beneath its foot for
A reinforced concrete footing extended to support support. The surrounding soil mass provides a
a row of columns. degree of lateral stability for the long compression
member. Also called Point-bearing Pile.
Strip Footing
The continuous spread footing of a foundation wall. Friction Pile
A pile that depends principally in the frictional
Strap/Cantilever/Connected Footing resistance of surrounding earth for support


Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
9
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Kinds of Piles • Composite Pile
• Wood Pile
Timber Piles • H-Section Pile
Log driven usually as a friction pile, often filled
with a steel shoe and a drive band to prevent their Pile Driver
shafts from splitting or shattering. A machine for driving piles, composed of a tall
framework supporting machinery for line in
H-Pile position before driving, a hammer and vertical rails
A steel H-section, sometimes encased in concrete to for guiding the hammer.
a point below the water table to prevent corrosion.

Pipe Pile Types of Pile Drivers
Heavy steel pipe driven with the lower end either
open or closed by a heavy steel plate or point and Drop Hammer
filled with concrete. A type of pile driver which is raised by means of a
rope and then allowed to be dropped. Any drop
Precast Concrete Pile hammer permitted shall weigh not less than one-
Has a round, square or polygonal cross section and half of the pile to be driven. Gravity hammer should
sometimes an open core; often pre-stressed. weigh not less than 200 pounds. Heights of all
hammers shall not be more than 6 meters.
Cased Pile
Pile constructed by driving a steel pipe or casing Steam Pile Hammer
into the ground until it meets the required A type of pile driver that is automatically raised
resistance and then filling it with concrete. and dropped a short distance by the action of the
steam cylinder and the piston supported in a frame,
Uncased Pile which follows the pile.
Pile constructed by driving a concrete plug into the
ground along with a steel casing until it meets the
required resistance, and then ramming concrete Types of Steam Hammer
into the place as the casing is withdrawn. 1. Single Acting Steam Hammer
The steam is applied to raise the striking part of
Classification of Piles According to Use the hammer, then allowed to fall by gravity. The
force of the blow depends on the length of the
Bearing Pile stroke and the movable weight. The number of
Used in foundation construction and carries blows per minute depends on the steam
superimposed loads. pressure.
2. Double Acting Steam Hammer
Batter Pile The steam pressure raises the hammer and also
Driven at an indication to resist forces that are not reinforces the action of gravity during descent.
vertical. Double acting hammers are more compact,
lighter and operates with rapidity.
Guide Pile
Used in cofferdam construction to support the Measures to be taken in driving piles
horizontal wall that in turn supports vertical sheet 1. The butt of the pile is cut off square so that the
piling impact of the hammer may be distributed
uniformly over the surface.
Fender Pile 2. Use rings or pile caps to protect the head of a
Driven at wharves or in front of a large masonry timber pile from brooming and splitting.
structure to protect them from sudden blows. 3. To facilitate driving the pile true to line or
position, the foot should always be cut off
Sheet Pile perpendicular to its axis.
Used to resist lateral pressure of the earth and to 4. The timber should be protected by using a
form a wall that is intended to be watertight; it metal shoe to prevent the pile from splitting
consists of timber, steel or precast concrete planks upon striking an obstruction.
driven vertically side-by-side to retain earth and 5. Use steam hammer as much as possible instead
prevent water from seeping into an excavation. of a drop hammer to reduce loss of energy,
brooming, and splitting.
Soldier Pile 6. Use a water jet whenever applicable and make
A H-section sheet pile driven vertically into the an adequate soil exploration of the ground to be
ground to support horizontal lagging penetrated before actual driving.

Lagging refers to the heavy timber planks joined Pier
together side-by-side to retain the face of an A cast-in-place concrete foundation formed by
excavation. boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a
shaft in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum and
Pile Eccentricity is the deviation of the pile from its filling the shaft with concrete. It also refers to a
plan location or from the vertical, which may result large cross-sectional dimension, each capable of
in a reduction of its allowable load. transmitting the entire load as single column down
to a stable stratum.
Types of Piles
• Cast-in-Place Pile Caisson
• Tapered Pile – Standard (Raymond) A pier, especially when the boring is 610mm (2ft)
• Taper Fluted Pile (Union) or larger in diameter to permit inspection of the
• Button Bottom Pile (Western) bottom.
• Cased Concrete Pile (McArthur)
• Uncased Straight Shaft (McArthur and Socketed Caisson
Western) A caisson that is drilled into a stratum of solid rock
• Simplex Pile rather than belled
• Precast Pile

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
10
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Rock Caisson Caisson Larger column Poor surface and near
A socketed caisson having a steel H-section core (shafts loads than for surface soils; soils of high
within a concrete-filled pipe casing piles but bearing capacity (point-
eliminate pile bearing on) is 8-50 meters
Types of Caisson cap by using below ground surface
1. Box Caisson caissons as
A watertight box made of timber and concrete, column
having a bottom, but no top. extension.
2. Open Caisson
A self-contained box structure made of timber, Retaining Permanent Any type of soil, but a
metal and concrete. walls, bridge retaining specified zone in back of
3. Pneumatic Caisson abutments structure wall usually of controlled
A type of caisson having an opening at the backfill.
bottom and closed at the top or it may be an
Sheet-pile Temporary Any soil: waterfront
inverted box into which compressed air is
Structures retaining structures require special
introduced to keep the water and mud from
structures as alloy or corrosion protection.
coming into the box enclosure and which forms
excavations, Cofferdams require control
part of the integral part of the foundation. waterfront of fill material.
structures,
Cofferdam cofferdams.
A temporary enclosure in a river, lake, etc., to keep
water from the enclosed area prior to the
construction of a permanent structure/s
EXCAVATION
Common Types of Cofferdams: The digging and removal of earth from its natural
1. Cantilever Sheet Piles position, or the cavity resulting from such removal.
2. Braced Cofferdam
3. Earth Embankment Minor Excavation
4. Double Wall Cofferdam Excavation characterized as having independent
5. Cellular Cofferdam and hollow block wall footing were the digging of
• Diaphragm Type the soil for the footing extend to depth from .0 to
• Cloverleaf Type 5.0 meters and about 0.5 meter for wall footing.
• Modified Type
Major Excavation
Foundation System Selection An excavation, which requires wide or total
Foundation Use or Applicable Soil Condition extraction of the soil
System Application
Type
Spread, Individual Any condition where bearing Shoring
Footing, columns, capacity is adequate for The process of providing temporary supports to
Wall walls, bridge applied load. May be used the structure or ground during excavation
Footings piers on single stratum: firm layer
over soft layer or soft layer Underpinning
over firm layer. Check The process of rebuilding, strengthening or
immediate differential and stabilizing the foundation of an existing building
construction consolidation
settlements. Tieback
These consist of steel cables or tendons that re
Mat Same as Generally soil bearing value
inserted into holes pre-drilled through the sheet
Foundation spread and is less than for spread
piling and into the rock or a suitable stratum of soil,
wall footings. footings; over one-half area
grouted under pressure to anchor them to the rock
Very heavy of building covered by
column loads. individual footings. Check soil, and post-tensioned with a hydraulic jack.
Usually settlements.
reduces Foundation Wall
differential Part of the foundation system, which provides
settlements support for the superstructure above and enclose a
and total basement or crawl space partly or wholly below
settlements grade; it must be designed and constructed to
resist active earth pressure and anchor the
Pile superstructure against the wind and seismic forces.
Foundation
Slurry Wall
A concrete wall cast in a trench to serve as sheeting
Floating in groups (at Poor surfaces and near and often used as a permanent foundation wall.
least 2) to surface soils. Soils of high
carry heavy bearing capacity 20-50 Damp-proofing
column, wall meters below basement or A method of foundation system protection applied
loads; requires ground surface, but by to a foundation wall when a subsoil conditions
pile cap distributing load along pile
indicate that hydrostatic pressure from the
shaft soil strength is
groundwater table will not occur.
adequate. Corrosive soils

may require use of timber or

concrete pile.
FORMWORKS
Bearing in groups (at Poor surface and near A system of temporary boarding, sheathing or pans
least 2) to surface soils; soils of high used to produce the desired shape and size of
carry heavy bearing capacity (point- concrete mass. Forms are generally used in
column, wall bearing on) is 8-50 meters concrete construction since concrete is formable
loads; requires below ground surface and assumes the shape of the enclosing material.
pile cap Forms should be watertight, rigid and strong
enough to sustain weight and pressure of concrete

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
11
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


and other external and internally induced forces.
The design of forms should be simple and Snap Tie
economically designed to allow ease of removal A form time having notches or crimps which allow
and reassembling without damage to itself or to the its ends to be snapped off below the concrete
concrete. surface after stripping of the forms.

Form Cone Bolt
Boarding or sheeting of wood, metal, plastic, A form tie having cones at each end inside the
fiberglass for containing and giving a desired shape forms, which allow it to also serve as a spreader
to newly placed concrete until it sets and gains
sufficient strength to be self-supporting. Cone
A small truncated cone of wood, steel or plastic
attached to a form tie to space and spread wall
SCAFFOLDING forms, leaving a neatly finished depression in the
A system of temporary platform to support concrete surface to be filled or left exposed.
workers and materials on the face of a structure
and to provide access to work areas above ground She Bolt
A form tie consisting of water rods, which are
Falsework inserted through the form and threaded onto the
Temporary bracing for supporting work under ends of an inner rod. After stripping, the water rods
construction, which cannot yet support itself are removed while the inner rod remains in the
concrete.

STAGING Chair
A temporary platform for workers and the A device for supporting and holding steel
materials that they use in the building structures reinforcement in proper disposition before and
during the placing of concrete
Shore
A piece of timber to support a wall, usually set in a High Chair
diagonal or oblique position, to hold the wall in A tall chair for supporting top bars in a concrete
place temporarily. beam or slab.

Wale, Breast Timber, Ranger, Waler Bolster
A horizontal timber or steel beam for reinforcing A wide chair for supporting and spacing bottom
various vertical members, as in formwork or sheet bars in a concrete slab or beam
piling, or for retaining earth at the edge of an
embankment Sonotube
Trademark for a brand of cylindrical column form
Wedge made of compressed, resin-impregnated paper.
Any of a variety of slotted devices for tightening
formwork and transferring the force in a form tie Types of Formworks
to wales. 1. Form shall result in a final structure that
conforms to shape, lines, and dimensions of the
Strongback, Stiffback members as required by the drawings and
A vertical support for aligning and reinforcing specifications.
wales 2. Forms shall be substantially and sufficiently
tight to prevent leakage of concrete or mortar.
Spreader, Spacer 3. Forms shall be properly braced or tied together
A brace, usually of wood, for spacing and keeping to maintain position and shape.
wall or footing forms apart 4. Forms and their supports shall be designed so
as not to damage previously placed structure.
Grade Strip 5. Forms for pre-stressed concrete members shall
A wood strop fixed to the inside face of a form to be designed and constructed to permit
indicate the top of a concrete lift. movement of member without damage during
application of pre-stressing force.
Bulkhead
A partition closing the end of a form or preventing Factors in the Design of Formworks
the passage of newly paced concrete at a 1. Rate and method of placing concrete
construction joint. 2. Construction loads, including vertical,
horizontal and impact loads.
Keyway 3. Special form requirements for construction of
A longitudinal groove or channel formed in a shells, folded plates, domes, architectural
concrete footing or other member that has set, concrete or similar types of elements.
providing a shear-resisting key for newly placed
concrete. MIXING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

Yoke Placement
A clamping device for keeping column forms or the The process of depositing and consolidating freshly
tops of wall from spreading under the fluid mixed concrete in a form or in the final position
pressure of newly placed concrete. where it is to harden.

Formliner Direct Placement
Material for lining the inner face of a form, specially The discharging of freshly mixed concrete into a
selected to impart a smooth or patterned finish to form from a mixer, buggy or crane.
the concrete surface.
Free fall
Form Tie The descent of freshly mixed concrete into a form
A metal tie for keeping wall forms from spreading without the aid of a drop chute
under the fluid pressure of newly placed concrete.

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
12
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Drop Chute 7. All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated
A chute for containing and directing a falling by suitable means during placement and shall
stream of freshly mixed concrete so as not to cause be thoroughly worked around reinforcement
segregation and embedded fixtures and into comers of
forms.
Agitation
The process of providing gentle motion in mixed Curing
concrete, just sufficient to prevent segregation or 1. Concrete shall be maintained at 50 F and in
loss of plasticity. moist condition for at least 7 days after
placement.
Segregation 2. High Early Strength Concrete shall be
The separation of coarse aggregate from the maintained above 50 F and in moist condition
mortar of water from the other ingredients of for at least 3 days.
freshly mixed concrete, resulting from excessive
horizontal movement or free fall of the mix, or from Removal of Forms and Shores
over-vibration after placement. 1. No constructions loads shall be supported on,
or removed from, any part of the structure
Stratification under construction except when that portion of
The separation of an excessively wet or over- the structure has sufficient strength to support
vibrated concrete mix into horizontal layers with safely its weight and loads placed thereon.
increasingly lighter material migrating toward the 2. Sufficient strength may be demonstrated by
top field-cured test cylinders and by structural
analysis considering proposed loads in relation
Bleeding, Water Gain to field-cured strengths and strength of the
The emergence of excess water on the surface of forming and shoring system.
newly placed concrete, caused by settlement of 3. No construction loads exceeding the
solids within the mass combination of superimposed dead load plus
specified live load shall be supported on any
Laitance un-shored portion of the structure under
A milky deposit containing cement and aggregate construction, unless analysis indicates
fines on the surface of new concrete, caused by the adequate strength to support such additional
bleeding of excess mixing water, overworking of loads.
the mix, or improper finishing. 4. Form shall be removed in such a manner as not
to impair safety and serviceability of the
Dewatering structure. All concrete to be exposed by form
Pumping or removal of water from construction shall have sufficient strength no to be damaged
site to maintain a relatively dry and stable thereby.
condition during construction 5. Form support for pre-stressed concrete
members may be removed when sufficient pre-
Preparation of Equipment and Place of Deposit stressing has been applied to enable pre-
1. All equipment for mixing and transporting shall stressed members to carry their dead load and
be clean. anticipated construction loads.
2. All debris shall be removed from spaces to be
occupied by concrete,
3. Forms shall be properly coated. Schedule of Formworks Removal
4. Masonry filler units that will be in contact with Part of Classification of Time Required
concrete shall be well drenched. Structure Parts
5. Reinforcement shall be thoroughly clean of any Footings Massive footings 1 day (24 hrs.)
material or other deleterious coatings. Cantilever footing 5 days (120 hrs.)
6. Water shall be removed from place of deposit Slab footings 5 days (120 hrs.)
before concrete is placed unless a tremie is to Walls, Massive walls 0.30 Up to 2 m. high – 1
be used. Plaster m thk. Or more day (24 hrs.), add’l 1
7. All laitance and other unsound material shall be day for every add’l
removed before additional concrete is placed meter of height or
against a hardened concrete. fraction thereof.
Laitance: A layer of weak, nondurable material Thin walls – less Up to 2 m. high – 2
containing cement and fines from aggregates, than 0.30 m thk. days (48 hrs.), add’l 1
which is brought to the surface of over-wet ½ days for every
concrete by the bleeding of water to the top. add’l meter of height
but not more than 28
Depositing days
1. Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as Cantiliver walls, Without loads, same
practicable in its final position to avoid buttresses, as Thin walls
segregation due to re-handling or flowing. counterforts,
2. Concreting shall be carried on at such a rate diaphragms
that concrete is at all times plastic and flows Columns Ratio of height to 2 days( 48 hrs.)
readily into spaces between reinforcement. least diameter up to
3. Concrete that has partially hardened or been 4
contaminated by foreign materials shall not be Ratio of height Add to the aboe 1
deposited in the structure. toleast diameter day for every add’l
4. Re-tempered concrete or concrete that has from 4 to 15 meter of height but
been remixed after initial set shall not be used not more than 28
unless otherwise allowed by the Engineer. days
5. After concreting is started, t shall be carried on Slabs 0.91m (3 ft.) to 0.91 m (3 ft.) – 5 days
as a continuous operation until placing of a 2.13m (7 ft.) span (120 hrs.), add’l 1/2
panel or section is completed. day for every foot
6. Top surfaces of vertically formed lifts shall be add’l span or fraction
thereof
generally level.
Over 2.13 m ( 7 ft.) 2.13 m (7 ft.) – 7 days
(168 hrs.), add 1 day

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
13
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


for every foot add’l 3. Scaffolds, ladders, stairs, fuel gas tanks and
span or fraction other devices or equipment shall be maintained
thereof but not more in a good, safe, and usable condition as long as
than 28 days in use.
Beams, Side 3 days (72 hrs.) 4. No scaffolds, ladders, railings or other devices
Girders Bottom Up to 4.27 m (14 ft.)- or equipment or any other part thereof shall be
14 days (336 hrs.), removed, altered, weakened when required by
add 1/2 day for every the work unless so ordered by the
foot add’l span or superintendent or foreman in charge.
fraction thereof but 5. Scaffolds, temporary floors, ramps, stairway
not more than 28 landings, stair treads and all other walkway
days surfaces shall be kept free from protruding
Arches Spandrel walls 3 days (72 hrs.) nails and splinters. They shall be kept free from
Spandrel arches 14 days (336 hrs.) unnecessary obstructions so that the workers
Main arches 21 days (504 hrs.) may move about safely.
Balustrade Steel and side form 1 day (24 hrs.) 6. Protruding nails and tie wire ends shall be
Copings removed, hammered in or bent in a safe
etc. condition.
RC Piles Side 3 days (72 hrs.) 7. Electric lines, moving ropes and cable gears, or
RC Posts Bottom 14 days (336 hrs.) similar hazards with which a worker might in
contact with shall be encased or protected.
8. No person, film or corporation, either
GENERAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION personally or through an employee or agent of
REQUIREMENTS another, hall operate or serve any machinery,
equipment, material, scaffolds or materials in
Excavation and Fills the process of assembly closer than 5.0 meters
1. Excavation or fills for buildings or structures to any energized high voltage overhead
shall be so constructed that they do not electrical facilities except with the approval of
endanger life or property. the electrical inspector.
2. Whenever the depth of excavation for any 9. All workmen on any demolition job shall be
construction is such that the lateral and sub furnished with and be required to wear
adjacent support of the adjoining or existing industrial safety helmets.
structure thereon would be affected in a 10. Construction sheds and tools boxes shall be so
manner that the stability or safety of the same located as to protect workers from dangerous
is endangered, the person undertaking or falling walls and other falling objects.
causing the excavation to be undertaken shall
be responsible for the expense of the Fence
underpinning or extending the foundation or 1. When the horizontal distance between the
footings of the aforementioned property or outmost face of the building and the inner edge
structure. of the sidewalk is more than one-half of the
3. Excavation and other similar disturbances building, only a fence shall be required.
made on public property, shall unless 2. Fences shall entirely enclose the
otherwise excluded by the authority, be construction/demolition site.
restored immediately to its former condition 3. Fences shall be built for its full length except for
within 48 hours from the start of such such openings as may be necessary for proper
excavation and disturbances by whosoever execution of work. Such opening shall be
caused such excavation or disturbance. provided with doors, which shall be kept closed
at all times except when in actual use.
Footings, Foundations, and Retaining Walls
1. Footings and foundations shall be of the
appropriate type, of adequate size and capacity SLOPE PROTECTION AND RETAINING WALLS
in order to safely sustain the superimposed
loads under seismic or any condition of Retaining Wall
external forces that may affect the safety or A structure whose primary function is to provide
stability of the structure. lateral support for soil or rock
2. Whenever or wherever there exist in the site of
construction an abrupt change in the ground Types of Retaining Walls
levels or of the foundation such that instability 1. Gravity Wall
of the oil could result, retaining walls shall be of 2. Cantilevered Wall
adequate design and type of construction. 3. Counterfort Wall
4. Crib Wall

PROTECTION AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR
CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PHILIPPINE VERNACULAR TERMS IN
CONSTRUCTION
General
1. The construction, erection, alteration and Unosinotra alternate/staggered
removal of scaffolds and the application, Liyabe anchor
installation and settling up of safeguards and Batidura astragal
equipment devices shall be done by skilled Medya agua awning
workmen under the supervision of a person Barandillas baluster
qualified by experience or training for such Rodapis baseboard
work. Tirante bottom chord
2. A safeguard, device or piece of equipment, Pie de gallo brace
which is unsafe shall be reported to the Ladrillo brick
superintendent or foreman, who shall take Kostilyahe ceiling joints
immediate steps to remedy such condition or Sinturon collar
remove such safeguard, device, or equipment. Larga masa concrete slab
Escondro crushed stone

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
14
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3


Abang dowel Lastillas sand and gravel
Tubo de banada downspout Andanyo scaffolding
Escombro earth fill Rebokada scratch coat
Alero eaves Dutcha shower
Tabike exterior siding Prigadero sink
Piye feet Krokis sketch plan
Batidura fillet Estanyo soldering bar
Dotal floorboards Biento spacing
Soleras floor joists Staka stake
Guililan floor sill Madre de escalera closed stringer
Suelo flooring Trabe anzo horizontal stud
Alahado flush Pilarete vertical stud
Kapatas foreman Latero tinsmith
Balangkas framework Poleya wiring knob
Dos aguas gable roof Haspe wood grain
Kuling girder Tabla wood plank
Sepo girt Plantsuela wrought iron strap
Canal girder Palitada plaster
Alulod gutter Kalinya aligned
Kanal gutter Trankilya barrel bolt
Caida hall Biga beam
Bisagra hinge Hiero iron
Pulgada inches Kisame ceiling
Pendulum king post Bakal de kadena chain bolt
Piyon laborer Poste column
Kantero mason Kontratista constructor
Kanto mesa miter Kanto corner
Paupo mortar Bangguerahan dish rack
Kostura mortar joints Sumbrero pintuan door head
Estanyo nikolite bar Hamba pintuan door jamb
Truerka nut Senepa fascia board
Estopa oakum Tambak fill
De bandeha panel door Asinta laying of chb
Lingueta G.I. Strap Sibe lean-to roof
Tapon plug Dulang low table
Hulog plumb bob Bagad wall post
Bolado projection Pitsa washer
Reostra purlins Pasamano window sill
Masilya putty Baytang tread
Media cana quarter round Pergola trellis
Vaciada rabbet Kilo truss
Kabilya reinforcing bars Asolehos wainscoting tiles
Kaballete ridge roll
Takip silipan riser
Rimatse rivets

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
15
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
16
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
17
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
18
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
19
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
20
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
21
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
22
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
23
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
24
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
25
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305
 University of Santo Tomas College of Architecture
Building Technology 3

Acknowledgement: Arch. Raffy Cueva Alli
26
Ar. Joey F. Saguindan
Reference: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture 2nd Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2012)
Building Construction Illustrated 5th Edition (Francis D.K. Ching, 2014)
rev_cmlorenzo17 0305