APNI KAKSHA 0
Carbon and Its Compounds
What are Organic Compounds?
Organic compounds are made up of carbon and form the basis of all living organism.
Vital Force Theory
This theory assumed that organic compounds could only be formed within a living system, that is
some special, vital force was necessary for the synthesis but Friedrich Wohler disproved this theory
in 1828 by preparing urea from Ammonium Cyanate.
O
||
NH 4CNO ⎯⎯ → NH 2 — C — NH 2
Ammonium Urea
Cyanate
Carbon - The Element of Life
• Atomic no. of Carbon is 6
• Electronic Configuration k(2), L(4)
• Outer most shell of Carbon Contain 4 electrons
• Earth’s Crust has only 0.02% Carbon in the form of minerals
• Atmosphere has 0.03% of Carbon-dioxide
• Cloths, Books, Food, medicines all Contain Carbon
Bonding in Carbon – Covalent Bond
• The Bond formed by sharing of electron pair between two atoms are known as Covalent
Bond.
“Sharing is Caring”
• Carbon always form Covalent Bond, as we know outer most shell of carbon has e⊝ s, it does
not form ionic bond by either losing four electrons (C4+) or by gaining four electrons (C4-)
[Delhi 2014]
• It is very tough to hold four extra electrons, and it require vary large amount of energy to
remove 4e⊝ s therefore carbon believes in “Sharing is Caring”
• Shared electrons belong to the outmost shell of Both the Atoms.
• Most Carbon Compounds are poor conductor of electricity, as these compounds does not give
rise any ions. [Delhi 2014]
• Elements like Oxygen, Chlorine, Hydrogen, Nitrogen also Form Bond by Sharing of electrons.
Q. What are covalent compounds? Why are they different from ionic compounds? List
their three characteristic properties? [Delhi 2016]
Sol. Covalent compounds are those compounds which are formed by sharing of valence
electrons between the atoms e.g. H2 molecule is formed by sharing of valence electrons
between the atoms.
Ionic compounds are formed by complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another
eg HCl
i. They are generally insoluble or less soluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.
ii. They have law melting and Boiling point.
iii. They do not conduct electricity as they do not contain ions.
APNI KAKSHA 1
Lewis Dot Structure
Lewis Structure is simplified representation of Valence shell/outermost shell electron in a molecule.
→ It is based on octet rule
1. Single Bond between H – H [H2]
[NCERT]
2. Double Bond b/w O2
[NCERT]
3. Triple Bond b/w N2
[NCERT]
Conclusion:
• One shared pair of e- → Single Bond
• Two shared pairs of e- → double Bond
• Three shared pairs of e- → triple Bond
Some More Examples
CO2 [NCERT]
[NCERT
H2O
Exemplar]
[NCERT
Cl2
Exemplar]
[NCERT
CH4 Exemplar,
Delhi 2019]
APNI KAKSHA 2
CCl4
[Exemplar]
Total covalent bonds = 4
C2H6 [NCERT]
Total covalent bonds = 6 (AI – 2015, Delhi 2014)
NH3 [Exemplar]
Total covalent bonds = 3
C2H2 [AI 2015]
Total covalent bonds = 5
S8 (Crown
[NCERT]
Shaped)
CH3 − C − CH3
|| [Exemplar]
O
CH2 = CH −
[Exemplar]
OCH3
CH2 = CH −
[Exemplar]
CH2 OH
APNI KAKSHA 3
Q. Why do ionic compounds not conduct electricity in solid state but conduct
electricity in molten and aqueous state? [CBSE 2016]
Sol. Ionic Compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state but conduct electricity in
molten and aqueous state because in solid state, there is no free ion to move and pass
electricity. Where as in the molten and aqueous state, there is free ions to move and pass
electricity.
Q. Why covalent compounds are volatile in nature with low boiling and low melting
point? [CBSE 2020, AI 2019]
Sol. Covalent compounds are volatile in nature due to small intermolecular force of attraction
between the atoms.
Q. Carbon exist in the atmosphere in the form of [Exemplar]
a) Carbon monoxide b) Coal
c) only carbon dioxide d) Carbon monoxide in traces and Carbon dioxide
Sol. (c) Only Carbon dioxide
Allotropes of Carbon
“The element Carbon occur in diff. form in Nature with widely Varying physical properties”.
➢ Allotropy: It is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more diff. forms, in the
same chemical properties and diff. physical properties called allotropy and these element are
called allotropes, Diamond and graphite are allotropes of Carbon.
➢ Diamond:
→ In diamond, each carbon atom is Covalently bonded to four other forming Rigid 3-D
Structure.
→ diamond is a very hard material and has very high melting point
➢ Graphite:
→ In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to other carbon
atoms in the same plane giving hexagonal array
→ Atoms are arranged in layers, within each layer atoms are
arranged in six-member rings
→ Graphite is soft and slippery substance, attributed to the fact that the layers are not chemically
bonded and can slide over one another.
→ Graphite is less dense than diamond.
→ It can be used for lubricating those machine parts which operates at high temp.
APNI KAKSHA 4
Difference between Diamond and Graphite
Diamond Graphite
It occurs naturally and is manufactured
1. It occurs naturally in Free state 1. artificially
2. It is the hardest natural substance known 2. It is soft and greasy to touch
It is Transparent and has high refractive
3. 3. It is Black in colour and opaque.
index
4. Diamond is more denser than graphite 4. Graphite is less denser.
➢ Fullerenes:
→ Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes.
→ Fist one to be identified was C – 60, which has carbon atom arranged in
the shape of football.
→ It contain both five – member as well as six – membered rings
Q. Give reasons for the following: [CBSE 2016]
i) Diamond has high melting point
ii) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity
Sol. i) In Diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a hardest
known substance. Thus, it has high melting point
ii) In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms by covalent bond
in the same plane giving a hexagonal array. Hence, 3 valence e- are used for bond
formation, hence 4th valence e- is free to move.
Versatile Nature of Carbon [AI 2011, 2020 & 2017]
1. Catenation: “The self-linking property of an
element due to which a large number of its
atoms can be linked with each other by covalent
bonds.
Due to catenation, long chains in Nature
➢ No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds.
➢ Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen and can show catenation up to seven or eight atoms,
but these compounds are very reactive.
➢ Carbon – carbon bond is very strong and hence very stable.
2. Tetravalency: It order to attain the Noble gas configuration, Carbon share its four valence
electrons with other atoms of carbon, or with atoms of other element Hence, due to small size,
and presence of four valence electrons, carbon can form strong bonds with other carbon atoms
like, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur.
Super Powers of Carbon!
a. Catenation b. Tetravalency
APNI KAKSHA 5
Hydrocarbons:
“Hydro carbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon”
[Exemplar, Foreign 2014]
Hydro Carbons
Open Chain Closed Chain
(Cyclic)
Saturated Hydro carbons
Unsaturated Hydro carbons
➢ Saturated Hydrocarbons: [AI - 2017]
Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bond between carbon atoms are called
saturated compounds/Hydrocarbons, also called as Alkanes.
General formula of saturated Hydrocarbon is CnH2n + 2 they are commonly called paraffin.
𝟑 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
{ }
𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏
➢ Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: [AI - 2017]
If in a Carbon Skeleton, there are one or more multiple bonds present between carbon atoms,
they are called unsaturated based on the type of multiple bond they are further classified as
Alkenes and Alkynes
➢ Alkenes: “An alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons at least one carbon – carbon double bond
with the gen formula CnH2n
Simplest Alkene, ethylene (C2H4)
➢ Alkynes: An alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon, at least one carbon – carbon triple bond
between carbon atom with gen. Formula CnHn-2 , Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes
Naming of Hydrocarbons:
Name of a hydrocarbon contains two parts 1.Word root and 2. Suffix
a. Word Root: It indicates no. of carbon atoms in the chain
b. Suffix: Shows saturation and unsaturation of hydrocarbons.
APNI KAKSHA 6
No. of Carbons Present in Word Root
longest chain
1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct
9 Non
10 Dec
Suffix:
i. Saturated Hydrocarbon → ane
(single bond)
ii. Double Bond → ene
iii. Triple Bond → yne
H3 C − CH2 − CH3 Propane
H3 C − CH2 = CH2 Propene
H3 C − C ≡ CH Propyne
Open Chain Compounds:
In open chain compounds, the carbon atoms are linked to each other by covalent bond
No. of Carbon Name of Alkane Formula Structure
Atoms
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H6
3 Propane C3H8
APNI KAKSHA 7
4 Butane C4H10
5 Pentane C5H12
6 Hexane C6H14
Closed Chain Compounds:
The organic compounds can have Cyclic or Ring structure.
Electron dot Structure of Cyclohexane:
Unsaturated Cyclic Compound: [CBSE – 2020, AI - 2019]
Benzene
C6 H6
Isomerism: [AI – 2015, 2011 , 2019]
Isomers are different compounds having same molecular mass as well as molecular Formula but diff.
arrangement of the atoms present.
APNI KAKSHA 8
Functional Groups: [Delhi - 2014]
“It may be defined as an atom which largely determines the properties of a particular organic
compounds.
Functional Group Family Suffix used in Nomenclature
−OH Alcohol −Ol
−C−H Aldehyde −al
||
O
−C− Ketones −one
||
O
− C − OH Carboxylic Acid −oic acid
||
O
−Cl/−Br Halo (Chloro/bromo) −Chloro, −bromo (as a prefix)
These groups confer specific properties to the compound, regardless of the length and Nature of
Carbon chain, and hence called functional groups.
Homologous Series: [AI - 2014]
“A series of similar constituted compounds in which the members present have the same functional
groups, same chemical properties and any two successive members in a particular series differ by
CH2 unit”
[CBSE - 2020]
For Example:- The general formula for the members of the Alkanes CnH2n + 2 (n = 1,2,3,4,. . . . . )
CH4 , C2 H6 , C3 H8 , C4 H10 , C5 H12 , C6 H14
CH2 CH2 CH2
Q. Write the name and formula of the 2nd member of homologous series having
general formula 𝐂𝐧 𝐇𝟐𝐧 [Delhi 2015]
Sol. Homologous series of Alkenes have general formula Cn H2n , whose first member is ethene.
2nd member of homologous series of alkene is C3 H6 i.e., propene
APNI KAKSHA 9
Q. Write the name and formula of the 2nd member of homologous series having
general formula 𝐂𝐧 𝐇𝟐𝐧+𝟐 [Delhi 2015]
Sol. Alkanes have general formula, Cn H2n+2 2nd member of homologous series of alkanes is
C2 H6 i.e., ethane
Q. Write the name and formula of the 2nd member of homologous series having
general formula 𝐂𝐧 𝐇𝟐𝐧−𝟐 [Delhi 2015]
Sol. General formula, Cn H2n−2 belong to Alkyne series. The second member of the series is
propyne i.e., (C3 H4 ) or CH3 − C ≡ CH
Q. Which of the following does not belong to the same homologous series?
[Exemplar]
a) CH4 b) C2H6 c) C3H8 d) C4H8
Sol. In a Homologous series, successive members of a Homologous series differ by CH2 unit
𝐂𝟒 𝐇𝟖 − 𝐂𝐇𝟐 = 𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟔
and, we know C3H6 do not belong to same Homologous series
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
Common Names System: IUPAC System:
According to this system of Nomenclature, IUPAC stands for International union of pure
Names are given according to their origin and applied chemistry is an international
e.g. → Acetic Acid is derived from Greek work organization which decides the name of
Acetum (Meaning Vinegar) compounds on the Basis of some set Rules.
IUPAC Nomenclature :
Prefix + Word Root + Suffix
−Cl → Chloro (No. of Carbon Atoms) (Functional Groups)
−Br → Bromo or
(ane/ene/yne)
Rules For IUPAC Nomenclature
1. Longest continuous carbon chain which include the F.G is selected; then the carbon chain is
numbered from the end near to the F.G, F.G get the least number.
2. If the name of the Functional group is to be given as suffix, the name of carbon chain is modified
by deleting final ‘e’ and adding the Appropriate suffix
Propane – e = propan + one = propanone
3. If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the Final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is
substituted by ene or yne
Examples:
APNI KAKSHA 10
i. ii. Bromopropane
Chloropropane
iii. Propanol iv. Propanal
v. Propanone vi. Propanoic acid
vii. Propene viii. Propyne
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − COOH CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2 − OH
ix. x.
Butanoic Acid Butanol
O
||
xi. CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2 − C − H
Heptanal
H3 C − CH2 − CH2 − C ≡ C − H
xii.
Pentyne
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds
• Combustion: A chemical reaction in which heat and light are given out is called combustion.
OR
“Combustion is rapid oxidation/burning of any substance in which heat and light are produced”.
Combustion of Carbon
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat + Light
Combustion of Hydrocarbon
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Heat + Light
Combustion of Alcohol
CH3CH2OH(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Heat + Light
The Nature of Flame
➢ Saturated hydrocarbon such as, methane, ethane burn with clear b/w flame in the presence of
sufficient oxygen.
➢ Saturated hydrocarbon in the presence of Limited amount of oxygen give sooty Flame
➢ Unsaturated hydrocarbon such as ethene, ethyne etc. burn with yellow flame with lots of black
smoke
➢ Kerosene when burnt in the presence of sufficient oxygen gives clear between flame.
➢ Some hydrocarbons like benzene, naphthalene etc. burn with sooty flame.
➢ Coal and Petroleum on burning produce mainly CO2, CO, Oxides of Nitrogen and sulphur. The
oxides of Nitrogen and sulphur cause air pollution.
APNI KAKSHA 11
Oxidation Reactions
During combustion, the compounds get oxidized completely
2C (s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
limited Carbon Diff. products depending
monoxide
upon oxygen available
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
excess
Oxidation of Alcohol [CBSE - 2020]
Alkaline KMnO4
CH3 – CH2 – OH → CH3COOH
Acidified K2Cr2O7
(ethanol)
Both Alkaline KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7 act as oxidising Agents (substance that supply
oxygen for oxidation) [Delhi - 2016]
Q. What happens when an oxidising agent is added to propanol? [Delhi 2016, AI - 2019]
Alkaline KMnO4
Sol. CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − OH → CH3 − CH2 − COOH
Addition Reaction [Delhi 2015, 2013, Foreign - 2012]
Unsaturated hydrocarbon add hydrogen in the presence of catalyst such as palladium or Nickel to
give saturated hydrocarbons
“Catalyst are the substance that cause a reaction to
occur at a different rate, without being used up in the
reaction.”
Above reaction is also known as “Hydrogenation” reaction,
➢ This reaction is used in the hydrogenation of Vegetable oil Vegetable oil generally have long
unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have saturated carbon chain
➢ Animal fats generally contain saturated fatly acid which are harmful for health
[Delhi - 2015]
Substitution Reactions
It is a single replacement chemical reaction during which one functional group in chemical
compounds is replaced by another functional groups.
CH3 OH + HBr → CH3 Br + H2 O
hv
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + HCl
Some Important Carbon Compounds – Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
Properties of Ethanol
1. Ethanol is liquid at room temperature
APNI KAKSHA 12
2. Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of Alcoholic drinks
3. Ethanol is a good solvent, so it is used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups and
many tonics.
Reactions of Ethanol
i. Reaction with sodium [Delhi - 2019]
2Na + 2CH3 CH2 OH → 2CH3 CH2 O− Na+ + H2
(sodium ethoxide)
ii. Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbons [Delhi - 2019]
Hot conc.
CH3 − CH2 − OH → CH2 = CH2 + H2 O
H2SO4
Alcohol as a Fuel
Sugarcane Juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to
give ethanol we can use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a
cleaner fuel, which give rise to only CO2 + H2O on burning in sufficient
O2.
Properties of Ethanoic Acid
1. Ethanoic acid is commonly called as Acetic Acid.
2. Solution of Acetic Acid in water is called Vinegar and is used as
preservative in pickles
3. Melting point of pure ethanoic Acid is 290 K.
4. Ethanoic Acid is also known as glacial Acetic Acid because it often freezes during winter in cold
climate.
Reactions of Ethanoic Acids
i. Esterification Reaction: Reaction of Acid and Alcohol gives Ester.
[Delhi – 2011, 2016, AI – 2017, 2020, 2016]
Acid
CH3 − COOH + HO − CH2 − CH3 → CH3 − C − O − CH2 − CH3
||
O
(Ethanoic Acid) (Ethanol) (Ester)
➢ Esters are sweet smelling substances
➢ Used in Making Perfumes and as Flavouring Agents.
ii. Saponification Reaction: [Delhi – 2011, AI – 2017, Foreign - 2014]
Ester + Base → Alcohol + Carboxylic Acid
this reaction is used in the preparation of soap
NaOH
CH3 COOC2 H5 → C2 H5 OH + CH3 COONa
(Alcohol) (sodium acetate)
NaOH + CH3 COOH → CH3 COONa + H2 O
iii. Reactions with Carbonates and Hydrogen carbonates
APNI KAKSHA 13
2CH3 COOH − Na2 CO3 → 2CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO2
CH3 COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO2
We can distinguish experimentally between alcohol and Carboxylic acid by reacting them with
sodium Carbonate, turning lime water milky. Alcohols do not react to give lime water milky.
When Carboxylic acid React with sodium bicarbonate solution, Carbon dioxide is evolved with
a brisk effervescence along with sodium acetate is formed [AI – 2015]
Q. Esters are sweet smelling substances and are used in making perfumes. Suggest
some activity and the reaction involved for the preparation of an ester [AI - 2019]
Sol. Step – I: Take 1 ml of ethanol and 1 mL of glacial acetic along with a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube
Step – II: Warm the content in a water bath for at least five minute
Step – III: Pour the content into a beaker containing 20-50 mL of water and small the
resulting mixture.
Soaps and Detergents
What are Soaps? [Delhi – 2011]
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long – chain carboxylic acids. The ionic – end of soap
dissolve in water the carbon chain dissolves in oil.
What are Detergents? [AI – 2012, Florigen2012, 2011 ]
Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonates salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
Cleaning Action of Soap: [Delhi – 2011, 2017]
➢ Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water
➢ The soap molecule form the structure called Micelles
➢ In Micelles one end is towards the oils droplet and other end which is ionic faces outside.
➢ Soap in the form of a micelle in the centre of the micelles
➢ The micelles stay in the solution as a colloid and will not come together to precipitate due to ion -
ion Repulsion.
➢ Soap micelles are large enough to scatter light; Hence soap solution appears cloudy
APNI KAKSHA 14
Hardness of Water [Delhi – 2011]
Hard water means, water having a very high mineral content like calcium and Magnesium salts soup
molecule react with the salts of calcium and magnesium and for precipitate also known as sum.
Soft water (which do not contain calcium and Magnesium salts are) do not form sum with soap.
→ Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonates salts of long chain carboxylic acid. The
charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with Hardwater, thus they
remain effective in Hard water.
Q. Why detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps? [Exemplar]
Sol. The charged ends of detergents do not form insoluble precipitates with calcium and
magnesium ion in Hard water, while when soaps are used for washing clothes with
hardwater, it react with the calcium and magnesium ions of hardwater to form an
insoluble precipitate called scum; therefore detergents are better cleansing agents than
soaps, because they can be used even with hard water.
Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Ethane, with the molecular formula 𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟔 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds (b) 7 covalent bonds
(c) 8 covalent bonds (d) 9 covalent bonds
Sol. 7 covalent bonds.
Q2. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group
(a) carboxylic acid (b) aldehyde
(c) ketone (d) alcohol
Sol. Ketone.
Q3. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it
means that
(a) the food is not cooked completely. (b) the fuel is not burning completely.
(c) the fuel is wet. (d) the fuel is burning completely.
Sol. The fuel is not burning completely.
Q4. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in 𝐂𝐇𝟑 𝐂𝐥.
Sol. Covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons so that the combining atoms complete
their outermost shell.
In CH3 Cl : C = 6, H = 1 and Cl = 17 And their electronic configuration is C – 2,4, H – 1 and
Cl – 2, 8, 7
Three hydrogen atoms complete their shells by sharing three electrons (one electron
each) of carbon atom.
Chlorine completes its outer shell by sharing its one out of seven electrons with one
electron of carbon atom.
APNI KAKSHA 15
Thus carbon atom shares all its four electrons with three hydrogen atoms and one of
chlorine atom and completes its outermost shell and single covalent bonds are formed in
CH3 Cl.
Q5. What is a homologous series ? Explain with an example.
Sol. Homologous series : A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having
similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds
differ by –CH2 group
Characteristics of homologous series :
(i) All members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general formula.
For example, the general formula of the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2, in
which ‘n’ denotes number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in one molecule of alkane.
(ii) Any two adjacent homologues differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms in
their molecular formulae.
(iii) The difference in the molecular masses of any two adjacent homologues is 14u.
(iv) All the compounds of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
(v) The members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical
properties with increase in molecular mass.
Q6. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water ? Will a micell
be formed in other solvents such as ethanol also ?
Sol. Micelle formation takes place when soap is added to water because the hydrocarbon
chains of soap molecules are hydrophobic (water repelling) which are insoluble in water,
but the ionic ends of soap molecules are hydrophilic (water attracting) and hence soluble
in water.
Such micelle formation will not be possible in other solvents like ethanol in which sodium
salt of fatty acids do not dissolve.
Q7. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications ?
Sol. Carbon and its compounds give a large amount of heat per unit weight and are therefore,
used as fuels for most applications.
Q8. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
Sol. Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. Calcium and magnesium on
reacting with soap form insoluble precipitate called scum. The scum formation lessens
the cleansing property of soaps in hard water.
Ab Phod Do!
APNI KAKSHA 16
