Principles of Food Process Design

 I. INTRODUCTION

 It is based on unit operations, transport

phenomena, reaction engineering, process
control, and process economics.
 Process Design uses empirical techniques, based
on long experience of operating plants.
 The recent trend is for application of
fundamental physical, chemical, and engineering
principles, use of computer modeling, and
molecular and process simulations
 Table 2.1 Design and Construction of Industrial
Plant

 1. Feasibility Study
 a. Process Design
 b. Plant Design
 2. Engineering Design
 a. Process Equipment
 b. Plant Utilities
 3. Plant Construction
 a. Civil Engineering Works
 b. Installation of Equipment
 c. Plant Start-up
 Process Design involves the following stages
(1) Selection of the proper flow sheet to
realize the required production;
 (2) material and energy balances, which are
specifying the process requirements of the
plant;
 (3) sizing and rating of the required industrial
process equipment;
 (4) cost estimation;
 (5) financial and profitability analysis;
 (6) parametric optimization; and
 (7) structural optimization of the process.
 Plant Design involves detailed engineering
and construction of process equipment,
utilities, buildings, storage facilities, and
waste treatment.
 Design projects that are related to laws and
regulations, product safety, employee
welfare and accidents, natural disasters, and
so forth, are not, in general, evaluated only
on the basis of financial profits. -To assure
food safety and quality.
DESIGN OF FOOD PROCESSES
 Mainly Mechanical and Civil Engineering
disciplines were utilized in the construction of
food processing equipment and plant facilities.

 During the recent years, Chemical Engineering

has entered into the design, operation and
control of food processes, through the
application of the successful industrial concepts
of Unit Operations, Transport Phenomena,
Process Design and Process Control.
 Plant layout of the processing equipment should
be based on the requirements of materials flow,
hygienic operation, access to equipment,
process control, and maintenance.

 An optimized design layout should combine the

equipment needs with the architectural, civil,
structural, and environmental requirements.

 Process and plant design procedures should

comply with the relevant national and
international standards, e.g., BS 5750, ISO 9000.
 ISO 14001 environmental management, 22000-
Food safety etc
Unit Operations in Food Processing

 The basic Unit Operations of Chemical

Engineering, i.e., Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer,
and Mass Transfer, have been applied to the
food processing industry for many years.

 The theory on these operations was

developed originally for gases and liquids
(Newtonian fluids), but in food processing
non-Newtonian fluids, semi-solid and solid
food materials are handled, and adaptation
or extension of the theory is necessary.
Reference e-book
 UNIT OPERATI ONS IN FOOD PROCESSING
 R. L. EARLE with M.D. EARLE

 Definition:
 In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit
operation is a basic step in a process. Unit operations
involve bringing a physical change such as separation,
crystallization, evaporation, filtration etc.
 For example, in milk processing,
homogenization, pasteurization, chilling,
and packaging are each unit operations which are
connected to create the overall process.
 A process may have many unit operations to obtain the
desired product.
High Pressure Processing
(non-thermal
pasteurization )300 and
600 MPa for up to 10
minutes
cold plasma
 The mechanical transport operations include
pumping of liquids, pneumatic
and hydraulic transport, and mechanical
conveying.

Pumping can be modeled and

simulated, based on the principles of Fluid
Flow and the Rheology of fluid food
materials.
 Mechanical processing operations - dealing
mostly with solid and semi-solid materials.
 Modeling and simulation of these operations is
difficult, and empirical rules and equations are
sometimes used.
Size reduction, agglomeration, mixing, and
extrusion, developed in the chemical process
industries, are adapted and applied to various
food processes.
 Sorting, grading, peeling, slicing, expression, and
forming require specialized equipment, which
has been developed for the various food
products and processes
 General mechanical separations, such as
screening, filtration, and centrifugation,
have been adapted from the chemical process
industries to various food processes.

 Cleaning and washing are empirical

operations, using specialized equipment,
Food Process Flow Sheets

 The selection of most food process flow

sheets is confined to a limited number
of alternatives, due to the well-defined basic
process, e.g., sterilization, evaporation,
drying or packaging.
 Auxiliary equipment, such as heat exchangers,
can increase the number of alternatives, e.g., for
energy optimization, in parts of the basic flow
sheet.

 Two-dimensional (2D) flow sheets are mainly

used for various process equipment, and plant
representations.

 In special cases, three-dimensional (3D)

diagrams offer a better visualization of complex
processing equipment .
 Process block diagrams (PBD) are widely used for simple
representation of the process, and for preliminary
calculations of material and energy balances.

 Each rectangular block represents individual unit

operations or group of operations. The process flow
diagrams or process flowsheets (PFD) show more
details of the process or plant, using specific symbols
for equipment, piping, and utilities.

 Both PBD and PFD flowsheets can show process details,

like material flow rates (kg/h), energy flows (kW),
temperatures (°C), and pressures (bar), and they can be
combined with tables of data.
 Move to energy and material balances lect 1
Material and Energy Balances
 1. Material Balances
 The material balances, based on a feed of 100 kg/h
of tomatoes are shown on the block diagram of
Figure 2.13. The raw tomatoes are assumed to
contain 7 % TS (total solids) and 93 % water. The
tomato solids consist mainly of soluble
carbohydrates, which are usually
 measured with a refractometer as °Brix (% sucrose),
and converted to % TS with special tables (NFPA,
1992). The TS include small amounts of skins and
seeds, which are separated mechanically from the
tomato juice.
During washing – 1kg/h is lost to the wastewater stream
After washing, fruits are passing through inspection section & 2 kg
(7%TS) is rejected to the waste stream
 After finishing it enters to pulping section and
followed by finishing step (filtration). During finishing
2kg/h (40%TS) is separated/filtered as waste - added to
waste stream
 Consecutive material balances (overall and
% TS) around each processing unit show
that out of a feed of 100 kg tomatoes (7 %
TS), the following products are obtained:
Tomato juice (6 % TS) 95 kg, which is
concentrated in a 3-effect evaporator to 17.8
kg of tomato paste (32 % TS). Culls
(tomatoes unfit for processing) 2 kg, mixed
with tomato waste from juice finishing 2 kg
to tomato waste (23.5 % TS) 4 kg.
 The mixed waste is dewatered partially in a screw
press to 2 kg of concentrated waste (40 % TS),
which is dehydrated in a rotary air dryer to 0.87 kg
of dried pomace (92 % TS).

 The evaporated water in the juice concentration

unit is 77.2 kg, and the remaining small amount
of tomato solids is lost in the liquid wastes of
washing and dewatering steps. The amount of
chlorinated water required for tomato receiving
and washing depends on the design of the
system, and for 10 ton/h of tomatoes,
approximately 2 m3/h of water may be needed.
 Washing

Inspecting

Pulping

Finishing

Evaporation Mixing

Sterilization Pressing

Aseptic Packaging Drying

Storage
Energy Balance

 For preliminary calculations the specific heat

(Cp) of tomatoes (7 % TS) is taken as 4.0 kJ/kg
K and that of tomato paste (32 % TS) 3.40
kJ/kg K.
 The (Cp) of water is 4.18 kJ/kg K, and the
thermodynamic properties (enthalpies) of
steam are taken from steam tables
 A triple-effect evaporator will be used to
concentrate 19 ton/h of tomato juice from 7 %
TS to 3.56 ton/h of tomato paste of 32 % TS,
removing 15.44 ton/h of water.

 Assuming a heat economy of 2.5 (kg of water

evaporated per kg of heating steam) the steam
requirement will be 15.44/2.5 = 6.2 ton/h.
 Heating energy req. for a Hot Break of
washed and sorted tomatoes for pulping
 Initial temp. 25C
 Final Temp – 85C
 Calculate the energy req? kJ/h and kW
(power)

 If Direct saturated steam is used 120C (2 bar)

 Assume enthalpy difference of (120-85C) =
2350kJ/kg steam
 Calculate the steam requirement for hot
break = t/h

 Calculate the energy req for sterilization of

3.56t of concentrate
 Initial temperature (assume) 45C
 Sterilization temp – 95C
 C=3.4 kJ/kg
 Calculate the steam req. if the enthalpy
change for 120-95C = 2202kJ/kg (steam)
 = t/h
 Heating of washed and sorted tomatoes from 25-
85 °C for pulping ("hot break") will require a
heating energy rate (power) of 20,000 x 0.97 x
4.0 x (85-25) = 4656000 kJ/h = 4656000/3600 =
1293 kW.
 Using direct saturated steam of 120 °C (2 bar) of
enthalpy (120 °C - 85 °C) 2350 kJ/kg, the amount
of required steam will be 4656000/2350x1000 =
1.98 ton/h.
 The steam required for sterilization of 3.56 ton/h
of tomato at 95 °C from an initial temperature of
45 °C will be 3560x3.40x(95-45) = 605200 kJ/h =
605200 / 2202 = 275 kg/h = 0.275 ton/h.
 Total steam needed, 6.2 +1.98 + 0.275 = 8.45
ton/h.
 The rotary dryer will dehydrate 400 kg/h of
pressed tomato waste (40 % TS) to 174 kg/h
of dried pomace (pulpy residue) (92 % TS),
removing 400-174 = 226 kg/h water. Calculate?

 Assuming that the heat capacity of the rotary

dryer is 4 MJ/kg evaporated water, the
required energy for drying will be 226x4 = 904
MJ/h.

 If natural gas of 40 MJ/kg is used as a fuel,

904/40 = 22.6 kg/h will be needed.
 End
 Calculate steam requirement
 Assume 120 C (2 bar) cooled down to 80C at
the same pressure
 Enthalpy change – 2692 – 2140 kJ/kg +(2260
kJ/kg latent heat)
 Calculate total steam requirement= t/h

 Calculate the cooling water requirements

 1. Condensing evaporated water from juice
 20C inlet and final 60C
 2. cooling tomato paste from 95C to 45C
 Specific heat capacity-4.18kJ/kg
 Cooling water (CW) will be needed mainly for the
condensation of the water vapors from the 3rd effect
of the evaporator. Total water evaporated
20000x77.2/100 = 15440 kg/h, and water vapors to be
condensed in the 3rd effect 15440/3 = 5146 kg/h. A
mixing condenser can be used, in which the vapors
are condensed by direct contact with the cooling
water. Assuming a CW temperature of 20 °C and
condensation temperature of 60 °C, the CW required
will be 5146x2357/40x4.18 = 72542 kg/h, or 72.5 m3/h.
The CW required for cooling 20000x0.178 =3560 kg/h of
sterilized tomato paste from 95 to 45 °C, assuming
final water temperature of 35 °C, will be
3560x3.40x(95-45)/4.18x(35-20) = 9652 kg/h or 9.6
m3/h.
Total cooling water required 72.5 + 9.6 = 82.1 m3/h.
Double effect evaporator
Water enthalpy of evaporation – decline
with increasing Temp

 2257 kJ/kg
 At boiling point (at atm pressure)

 Physical model for vaporization

 It is suggested that the energy required to free
an atom from the liquid is equivalent to the
energy needed to overcome the surface
resistance of the liquid. The model allows
calculating the latent heat by multiplying the
maximum surface area covering an atom (Fig. 1)
with the surface tension and the number of
atoms in the liquid.
LHV – reduces with increasing Temp
Heat of vaporization of grain moisture with respect to temperature variation

1kCal = 4.186 kJ

2634.6

2925.2

2613.7

2411.5

DAN Dharmasena
9/9/2017 41
Specific Heat- increase with increasing Temp

 Substance C (J/g oC)

 Air 1.01
 Aluminum 0.902
 Copper 0.385
 Gold 0.129
 Iron 0.450
 Mercury 0.140
 NaCl 0.864
 Ice 2.03
 Water 4.18 6
 q = m x C x DT
 q = m x C x (Tf - Ti) q = amount of heat energy gained or lost by
substance , m = mass of sample C = heat capacity (J oC-1 g-1 or J K-
1 g-1), T = final temperature, T = initial temperature
f i
Plasma -meaning "moldable substance"[1] or "jelly")[2] is one of the four
fundamental states of matter, while the others are solid, liquid, and gas. Unlike
these three states of matter, plasma does not naturally exist on the Earth under
normal surface conditions, and can only be artificially generated from neutral
gases

 It can simply be considered as a gaseous

mixture of negatively charged electrons and
highly charged positive ions, being created by
heating a gas or by subjecting gas to a
strong electromagnetic field.

 Cold plasma – at room temperature – used to

sterilize fruits/vegies etc