Research Design

Concept of Research Design:

Research design is an overall framework or roadmap to proceed
the research work to be undertaken during the course of research
activities.

 A research design is a master plan or blueprint that specifies

the methods to be adopted for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data based on the research questions of the study.

 A research design is the plan for activities.

 It explain about what methods will be used?

 It provide idea for what approach will be taken?

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 According to C. R. Kothary “Research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is
conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data”.

 According to Zikmund “ Research design is the master

plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information”.

 It is a plan and structure to find out the solution of the

problem.

 It helps to select the research methods.

 Features of Research Design
 For conduct research, the research design is a structure prepared on
the basis of certain procedure, so it requires some given features or
qualities:

 Reliability
 Objectivity
 Validity
 Replicability
 Generalizability

Also the subject for:

 Investigation
 Methodology
 Data Gathering
 Analysis
 Reporting
 Types or Classification of research design
 Several typologies have been suggested for classifying a wide variety of research
designs used for social science research.

 With a view to giving more detailed information about research design we can
classify research study into five categories.

1. Exploratory research design

2. Descriptive research design

➢ Historical research
➢ Descriptive research
➢ Developmental research
➢ Survey research
➢ Case study research
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3. Comparative research design
➢ Correlation research
➢ Causal-comparative research

4. Interventional/experimental research design

➢ Natural or uncontrolled
➢ True experimental research/Lab based experimental research
➢ Quasi-experimental research/Field based experimental research

5. Qualitative research design

 1. Exploratory Research Design
An exploratory research design is defined as a study undertaken in areas where
very little prior knowledge or information is available on the subject under the
investigation.

An exploratory study is undertaken when we do not know much about the
situation at hand.

 Extensive preliminary work needs to be done to get familiarity with the

phenomenon in the situation.

The main purpose of the exploratory research is to explore the new insights or
ideas.

It is particularly useful if you want to clarify your understanding of a problem.

Features:

 There is no set method for conducting exploratory research.

 It is less structured and more flexible.

 This studies are not characterized by formal research design,

so they are not in very scientific in nature.

 It provides the direction for a more formal research work.

 Researcher can use the number of informal approaches in

attempting to define the problem and gather the data.
2. Descriptive Research Design
a. Historical Research:
 Historical research is concerned with past phenomena.

 It can be defined as systematic and objective location,

evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusion abut past events.

 Thus, the historical research if the process of

collecting, evaluating, verifying and synthesizing the
past evidence systematically and objectively to reach a
conclusion.

 The main purpose of conducting the historical research

is to show the relevance of past events to the presents.
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 There are two main sources from where past evidence can
be found: first, is primary source, where there is direct
observer of the recorded events and other is secondary
source where it is reporting the observations of others.

 In most cases, it has to depend upon the data observed

by others rather than by yourself.

 Historical research is not based on purely scientific

method.

 There is difficulty in the matters of objectivity of

interpretation because researcher must depends upon the
reported observation of others.
Characteristics of historical research
 It must be rigorous, systematic and exhaustive.

 It depends upon two types of data like direct observation and reporting of
others.

 Historical research is similar to the “reviews of literature” which precede

other forms of research.
 b. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research describes phenomena as they exists.

 Such studies involve the systematic collection and presentation of data to

give the clear picture of particular situation.

Descriptive research is conducted to assess the opinion, behaviors or

characteristics of given population and to describe the situation and events
occurring at present.

 It does not seek to explain relationship, test hypothesis, make prediction

and implication of the study.

Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative.

 This research involves gathering data and describe the events and then
organize, tabulates, depicts and describes the data collection.

 Multiple variables are not used in the descriptive research. Descriptive

research report the percentage summary on a single variable.
 Characteristics of descriptive research
 Descriptive research is used in the literal sense describing situation or events.

 It is accumulation of a data base that is solely descriptive.

 It does not necessarily seeks the relationship, test hypothesis, make prediction
and implication.

 The main purposes of descriptive research are: to collect detailed information

that describes the phenomena, to identify the problems or justify the current
situation, to make comparison and evaluation, to determine what others are
doing with similar problems and benefit from their experience in making future
plans and decision.
 c. Developmental research
Developmental research is conducted for the purpose of predicting the future
trend.

 It concentrates on the study of the variables, their rate of changes, direction and
sequences.

There are several methods for developmental research, which are as follows:
i. Longitudinal(distance) study:-
 It is a study where phenomena is studied in the same unit over a time either
continuously or repeatedly.

This type of study measures the nature and rate of change in a sample at
different stage of development.

Thisoccurs when the data are collected at two or more points in time from the
same group of individual.

Longitudinal study is mostly quantitative.

(ii) Trend study:- Trend is a fluctuation of anything in different
period of time and when data are collected at intervals spread over
a period of time, then it is called trend study.

Trend study is used to predict the future event or position.

(iii) Cohort study:- cohort is a group of people who share a

common characteristics or experience within a defined period.

Cohort study is the study of a specific group such as burn on a day

or in a particular period.

There are many others kinds of cohorts including education,

disease, employment, family formation etc.
(iv) Cross-sectional study:-
Itinvolves the observation of some items of the population all at the same
time.

This study basically measures the rates of changes by drawing samples from
the cross-section of society.

It focuses on comparing and describing the groups.

In this study data are gather just once over a period of time in order to
answer the research questions. Such studies are also known as one-shot
studies.

The fundamental difference between a cross-sectional study and

longitudinal study is that a cross-sectional study take place at a single point
of time and a longitudinal study involves a series of measurements taken over
a period of time.
 Forms of developmental research

Developmental Studies

Longitudinal Study Cross-sectional

Study

Trend Study Panel Study Cohort Study Sample Survey

Study
 Characteristics of developmental research
 Focuses on the study of variables and their development over a period of
months or year.

 What are the pattern of growth, rate, direction and sequence.

 The sampling problem in the longitudinal method is complicated.

 There may be the chances of biases.

 Cross-sectional studies usually include more subjects, but describes fewer

growth factors than longitudinal study.

 Sampling at cross sectional method is more complicated because same

children are not involved at each level and may not be comparable.

 Trend studies are only the guess for long range prediction short range
prediction more reliable.
 d. survey research
 A survey means the gathering the information about the
characteristics, actions or opinions of a large groups of people,
referred to as a population.

 Survey research involves interviewing or questionnaires to large

numbers of people in the field.

 The investigator analyze the data obtained from surveys to learn

about similarities, differences and trends and make predictions
about the population being studied.

 According to Tull and Hawkins “a survey research is the

systematic gathering the information from the respondents for the
purpose of understanding and prediction of some aspects of
behavior of the population of interest.”

 A survey is done to understand the attitude of employees towards

new compensation policy.
 The survey research can be categorized into three
types.
1. Exploratory survey research:- exploratory survey research is conducted
during the early stage of research. It provides the basis for more in-depth
surveys.

2. Confirmatory(theory testing or explanatory)survey research:- in this

research data is collected with specific aim of testing the theory or
hypothesis.

3. Descriptive survey research:- this research describes the distribution of the

phenomena in a population. Through facts describe, it provided the useful
hints both for theory building and theory refinement.

 The aim of survey research is to measure the attitude, behavior of a population

or sample.

 It may come in a wide range of forms and can be distributed using a variety of
medias are used for asking the questions to the respondents like; written survey,
oral survey, electronic surveys.
e. Case study research

➢ Case studies are written summaries or synthesis of real

life cases based upon data and research.

➢A case study is defined as a strategy for doing research

which involves an empirical investigation of a particular
contemporary phenomenon within a real life context using
multiple sources of evidence.

➢ Rather than using samples to examine a limited number of

variables, case study methods involve in in-depth,
longitudinal, examination of a single instance or
events(case).
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➢The study phenomenon could be a person, a family, a social
unit, an institution, a community or a even a entire culture.

➢The investigator gathers pertinent data about the present

status, past experience, and environmental forces that
contribute to the behavior of the unit.

➢After analyzing the sequence and interrelationships of these

facts he/she conducts the comprehensive study of a social
unit.

➢The specific event or phenomena is observed or studied and

based on this analyzed the situation.

➢The social study of endanger Route tribe.

Characteristics of case study
➢ A case study is more expensive because of its exploratory nature.

➢ A generalization drawn from a single case can not be applied to all cases
in a given population.

➢ Personal biases may influence in the interpretation.

➢ Case studies are depth study of given social unit.

➢ Case study tends to examine a small number of units across a large

number of variables and conditions.
3. Comparative Research Design

a. Correlational research:

 Positive correlation
 Negative correlation
 No correlation

b. Causal-comparative research
 b. Causal-comparative research

 This research investigates the possible causes affecting a

particular situation by observing consequence and searching
for possible factors leading to these results.

This focus on studying a problem in order to explain the

relationship between two variables.

In this research investigator takes one or more dependent

variables and examines the data by going back through time,
seeks causes, relationship and their meaning.

 It attempts to determine reasons or causes for existing

condition. This research is also known as ‘ex post facto’(after
the fact) research.
This is because both the effect and the alleged causes have
already occurred and must be studied in retrospect.

This research requires two groups which are selected for

comparison. The main aim of this research is to assess causes
of difference in two groups.

 For example, to study the effect of income on purchasing

behavior, we may identify two groups of customers one is
high purchaser and other is low purchaser.

 Then we could study the differences of two groups are

related income variable that already occurred as the
reason for the difference in the purchasing behavior
between the groups.
There are three types of casual comparative research:
 Exploration of effects
 Exploration of causes
 Exploration of consequences

There are also three possibilities relationships that can occur between two
variables like:
 Symmetrical relationship: Having two halves variables which are the same in size
and shape influence together but we assume that changes in neither variables are
due to changes in the other.

 Reciprocal relationship: Mutually influence or reinforce each other. Eg.

Advertisement leads to the use of a brand of product.

 Asymmetrical relationship: Change in independent (experimental group) variable

are responsible to the change in other dependent variable (controlled group).
Characteristics of Causal-comparative research

➢ There is a control or comparison groups.

➢ There is an intact group.

➢ Treatment is not manipulated, it has already occurred.

➢ Investigator takes one or more effects(I.V.) and

examine the data by going back, seeks causes,
relationship.
 4. Experimental research
 Researcher controls all other variables and conduct research by considering the few
variables through observation and experiment is known the experimental research.

The variables under study are free and valid, and all a others are controlled and kept
constant.

An experiment is a test of a causal proposition. How changes in the value of one
variable(I.V.) affect the another variable(D.V.).

The main aim of this study is to see the relationship of between the variables and
formulating the hypothesis.

The effect in the dependent variable may have been caused by many other factors or
alternatives hypothesis.

So, the purpose of experimental design is to eliminate all alternative hypotheses.

It can be used in laboratory and field work.

 Types of Experimental research
Natural or uncontrolled:
 This research is based on real setting, natural, mostly on observations and this
types of research is applicable in astronomy.

Laboratory experiment:
 This experiment researches are conducted under completely controlled
situations (homogeneous condition) that are created for special purposes.

Field experiment:
 These experiments are conducted in a realistic environment thereby minimizing
the effects of unwanted variables.
Characteristics of experimental research

➢ All variables are kept constant except variables under the study.

➢ Requires rigorous management of experimental variables.

➢ Uses control groups

➢ It examine the effect of I.V. in the D.V.

5. Qualitative research
 Qualitative research was one of the first forms of social study.

It is used in organizational behavior, human resource

management, marketing research, strategic management etc.

It provides powerful tool for areas of management.

The application of qualitative research methods are on

understanding the complex situation, interrelated and changing
phenomena.
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In the literature of social science research, such terms
as interpretive, naturalistic, ethnographic.

According to Uwe Flick “Qualitative research is an

investigation of the subjective meaning or the social
production of issues, events or practices by collecting
non-standardized data and analyzing texts and image
rather than numbers and statistics.”

This approach to research involves the in-depth

exploration and interpretation of the perceptions,
opinion, aspirations, behavior, motivation, attitude,
lifestyle, culture of the people.

 So it is all about exploring issues, understanding

phenomena and answering the questions.
 Types and Method of Qualitative Research
In different field of social and behavioral science, the following branches and
methodological approaches to qualitative research are emerged:

 Case Study: The method which relies on single case rather than population or
sample.

 Grounded Theory: It is context base and process oriented and it is not just
theory abstract theories , instead the theory needs to be grounded or rooted in
observation.

 Phenomenology: It is long history in several social research discipline including

psychology, sociology and social work. So, it is study of human experience.
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 Ethnography: It is systematic study of people and culture.

 Historical Research: It is systematic collection and objective evaluation of data

related to past occurrences.

 Field Research: It is method of observation of participant in field survey.

 Hermeneutics: It is study of the theory and practice of interpretation of literacy

and religious texts.

 Subjectivism: It is knowledge, idea or opinion which is generated from the mind

without reference to reality.

 Constructivism: It is constructed by human beings as they interact and engage in

interpretation.
 Basic assumption of qualitative research
➢ Research is descriptive: the focus is describing and understanding a phenomenon.
Detail description of context, activities, process.

➢ Research involves fieldwork: the researcher has direct and personal contact with
the people involved in phenomenon.

➢ Inductive process: this research is exploratory and focuses on discovery. It does not
considered in hypothesis testing.

➢ Subjective in nature: it leaves much of the measurement process to the discretion

of the researcher. This approach does not use rigorous mathematical analysis.

➢ Research incorporates emergent design: the research design can not be

completely specified in advance of the fieldwork. The researcher pursues his/her
own direction and discretion in data collection.

➢ Holistic approach: qualitative research explains to any events or issues considering

to all causes of occurrence, process, activities and relationship amongst the
variables. It does not explain the events based on single facts. It considers to every
related facts while explaining the events.
 Features of qualitative research
➢ Interpretive: it analyzes and interprets the events, functions or
problems and tries to find out the reasons of occurring events.

➢ Change in research design: whole part of the research design can be

changed when and where required.

➢ Holistic assumption: it assumes there is not single facts for occurrence

of events. There will be multiple facts. The perception of people over
facts changes.

➢ Self collection of data: to get in-depth knowledge, it is better to

collect the data by the researcher himself because he/she gets the
opportunities to get information from the gesture of respondents.

➢ Based on qualitative facts: qualitative research uses subjective

information rather than quantitative information. It analyzes the
subjective information and explain the situation to explore the real
cause.
 Basic Principles of Research Design
 Principle of flexibility

 Principle of replication

 Principle of timelines

 Principle of objective

 Principle of generalizability

 Principle of reliability

 Principle of validity
 Criteria of good Research Design
 Objectivity

 Generalizability

 Reliability

 Validity

 Situational (Good research designs reflect the settings of the investigation)

 Feasible (Good research designs can be implemented)

 Efficient (Good research designs strike a balance between redundancy to over design)

 Theory-Grounded (Good research reflect the theories which are being investigated)

 Redundant (flexibility built as a result of duplication of essential design feature )