UNIT 1:

Fundamentals of DC
and
AC circuits

Course Instructor:
Dr. Pankaj Kr. Keshri
Associate Professor
Electrical Circuit
 Charge and Current
• Charge: Charge is an electrical
property of the atomic particles of a
matter.
S.I Unit: Coulomb (C)
Symbol: Q
• Current: Rate of change of charge.
OR
Continuous flow of
electrons in an electrical circuit.
S.I Unit: Ampere (A)
Symbol: I
 Charge and Current
• Mathematically,
𝑡
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = ∫ 𝐼. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑡0
Or, in simple terms:
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑇
So, 1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/ 1 second.
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 1)
1 Coulomb is same as:
A. Watt /sec
B. Ampere/sec
C. Joule-sec
D. Ampere-sec
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 2)
The total charge entering the terminal is 5𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐶. Calculate current
at t= 0.5 sec.:
A. 31.2 A
B. 31.2 mA
C. 62.8 mA
D. 62.8 A
 Voltage
• It is the energy (Work) required
to move a unit charge through
an element.
S.I Unit: Volt (V)
Symbol: V
 Power and Energy
• Power: Rate at which the work is done.
OR
Time rate of absorbing or supplying energy
S.I Unit: Watts (W)
Symbol: P
Mathematically,
𝑃 = 𝑑 𝑊 =𝑑 𝑊 . 𝑑 𝑞 = 𝑉.𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑡

Implies, 𝑃 = 𝑉. 𝐼
 Power and Energy
• Energy: Capacity of doing work.
S.I Unit: Joules(J)
Symbol: E
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 3)
Calculate the current ratings of 100 Watt incandescent bulb and 15
Watt LED lamp operated with the domestic supply of 220 Volt?
A. Bulb = 0.068 A and LED = 0.45 A
B. Bulb = 0.45 A and LED = 0.068 A
C. Bulb =0.50 A and LED = 0.068 A
D. Bulb = 0.50 and LED = 0.68 A
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 4)
From the previous question, it can be inferred that:
A. LED consumes 5 times more current than Bulb.
B. Bulb consumes 5 times more current than LED..
C. LED consumes 6.6 times more current than Bulb.
D. Bulb consumes 6.6 times more current than LED.
 Network Components

Active Passive

Battery
Resistance (R)
Capacitance (C)
Transistor,
Inductance (L)
Op-amp,
Transformers
Diode
VS and CS
Generators
 Resistance
• Resistance: It is an opposition to the flow of current.
S.I Unit: Ohm (Ω)
Symbol: R
 Capacitance
• Capacitance is the ability of a device to store
electrical energy in an electrostatic field.
• A capacitor is a device that stores energy
in the form of an electrical field..
• A capacitor is made of two conductors
separated by a dielectric.
S.I Unit: Farad (F)
Symbol: C
Two important Properties:
1. No current flows through the capacitor, if the
voltage remains constant.
2. Voltage across a capacitor cannot
change instantaneously.
 Inductance
• Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical
conductor that opposes a change in current flow.
• An inductor is a device that stores energy in a
magnetic field.

• When a current flows through a conductor,

magnetic field builds up around the conductor. This
field contains energy and is the foundation for
inductance.
S.I Unit: Henry (H)
Symbol: L
Two important Properties:
1. No voltage appears across an inductor, if the current
through it remains constant.
2. The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously.
 Capacitance and Inductance
• 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 • 𝑉=𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑄 𝑑 𝐶𝑉 𝑑
𝑑𝑉
• 𝐼= = =𝐶 •
1
𝐸 = 𝐿𝐼2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 2
• 𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 2 𝜇 𝑁2 𝐴
2 • 𝐿=
𝗅(length of coil)
• 𝐶 = 𝐴∈
𝑑
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 5)
Identify the passive element
A. Battery
B. Transformer
C. Transistor
D. OP-amp
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 6)
Find the value of capacitance if the value of voltage increases linearly
from 0 to 100 V in 0.1 s causing a current flow of 5 mA?
A. 10 µF
B. 5 F
C. 10 F
D. 5 µF
 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that:
“the current in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the voltage
across its terminals, provided that the physical parameters like
temperature, etc. remain constant”
Mathematically,
𝐼α𝑉
Or,
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑙
Where, Resistance 𝑅 = ρ
𝐴
Resistivity Table
 Conductance
• A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R,
known as conductance and denoted by G
1 𝐼
•𝐺= =
𝑅 𝑉
• S.I Unit: mho (ohm spelled backwards) or Siemens
• Symbol:
• Power dissipated in the resistor can be expressed as:
2
𝑉
• 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅
 Short-circuit and Open-circuit
• For a short circuit, R = 0 Ω • For an open circuit, R = ∞ Ω
• Therefore, V = I.R = 0 V • Therefore, I = V/R = 0 V
• NOTE: (current, I can be of any • NOTE: (voltage,V can be of any
value) value)
 Applications of Ohm’s Law
1. To find unknown Voltage (V)
2. To Find unknown Resistance (R)
3. To Find unknown Current (I)
4. Can be used to find Unknown Conductance (G)=1/R
5. Can be used to find unknown Power (P)=VI
6. Can be used to find unknown conductivity or Resistivity
 Applications of Ohm’s Law
1. It is widely used in circuit analysis.
2. It is used in ammeter, multimeter, etc.
3. It is used to design resistors.
4. It is used to get the desired circuit drop in circuit design (Example,
Domestic Fan Regulator).
5. Advanced laws such as Kirchhoff’s Norton’s law, Thevenin’s law are based
on ohm’s law.
6. Electric heaters, kettles and other types of equipment working principle
follow ohm’s law.
7. A laptop and mobile charger using DC power supply in operation and
working principle of DC power supply depend on ohm’s law.
 Limitations of Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law holds true only for a conductor at a constant temperature.
Resistivity changes with temperature.
• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.
• It is NOT applicable to non linear elements, For example, Diodes,
Transistors, Thyristors, etc.
• This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks.
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 7)
The voltage and the conductance of
the given circuit is:
A. 30 V, 10 µS
B. 30 mV, 100 µS
C. 30 V, 100 µS
D. 30 mV, 10 µS
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 8)
The power of the given circuit is:
A. 60 mW
B. 70 mW
C. 80 mW
D. 90 mW
 Series Connection
• SERIES CONNECTION: Two or more elements are in series if they
exclusively share a single node and consequently carry the same
current.
Point to Remember for Series Circuits
 Parallel Connection
• PARALLEL CONNECTION: Two or more elements are in parallel if
they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently
have the same voltage across them
Battery Voltage In Series And Parallel
Note: Resistors in series behave as a single resistor whose resistance is equal to the sum of the
resistances of the individual resistors.
Resistors in Parallel
.
How to find Equivalent Resistance for
Series-Parallel Combinations
Example: To find 𝑹𝒆𝒒
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 9)
Find Equivalent Resistance in Ohms?

A. 5
B. 10
C. 15
D. 20
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 10)
Find Equivalent Resistance in Ohms?

A. 12
B. 17
C. 19
D. 29
 Kirchhoff’s Law
• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.
• However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a
sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric
circuits.
• These laws are:

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• It states that:
“the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero”.
OR
“ Sum of currents entering a node = Sum of currents leaving a node “
• Based on Law of Conservation of Charge.
• Mathematically, ∑ 𝐼 = 0
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 1)
KCL equation for the given network is:
A. 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
B. 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3
C. 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
D. -𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• It states that:
“algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.”
OR
“ Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises.”
• Based on Law of Conservation of Energy
• Mathematically, ∑ 𝑉 = 0
Sign Convention for KVL
 Let us Recall!
• Taking Clockwise direction (Def. 1):
+𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 − 𝑉5 = 0

• Taking Anti-clockwise direction(Def. 1):

−𝑉4 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 + 𝑉5 = 0

• Voltage rise = Voltage drop

+𝑉1 + 𝑉4 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉5
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 2)
Find voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 in the given circuit:
A. 𝑉1 = 16 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 12 𝑉
B. 𝑉1 = 16 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = −8 𝑉
C. 𝑉1 = 8 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = −12 𝑉
D. 𝑉1 = −12 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 8 𝑉
 Voltage Division Rule
• The important relations are:
Example for Voltage Division Rule
 Current Division Rule
• The important relations are:
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 3)
Find current across two resistors?
A. 𝐼1 = 4 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 16 𝐴
B. 𝐼1 = −2 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 1 𝐴
C. 𝐼1 = 4 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 1 𝐴
D. 𝐼1 = 1 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 4 𝐴
 Applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws
• They can be used to analyze any electrical circuit.
• Computation of current and voltage of complex circuits.
 Limitations of Kirchhoff’s Laws
• The limitation of Kirchhoff’s both laws is that it works under the assumption
that there is no fluctuating magnetic field in the closed loop and the current
flows only through conductors and wires.
 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between
two or more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit

NOTE:
• Two or more elements are in series if they
exclusively share a single node and consequently
carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are
connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.
 QUICK QUIZ (Poll 4)
How many branches, nodes and
independent loops are present in
the given circuit?
A. b=3, n=5, l=6
B. b=5, n=3, l=6
C. b=5, n=3, l=3
D. b=3, n=5, l=3
 Energy Sources
Source

Voltage Source Current Source

Independent Dependent Independent Dependent

Voltage-Dependent Voltage-Dependent

Current- Dependent Current- Dependent

 Independent and Dependent Sources
• Independent sources are those which does not depend on any other quantity in the circuit.
They are two terminal devices and has a constant value, i.e. the voltage across the two
terminals remains constant irrespective of all circuit conditions. The Independent sources
are represented by a circular shape.

• Dependent or Controlled sources are those whose output voltage or current is NOT fixed but
depends on the voltage or current in another part of the circuit. When the strength of voltage
or current changes in the source for any change in the connected network, they are called
dependent sources. The dependent sources are represented by a diamond shape.
 Independent and Dependent Sources
• Independent • Dependent
 Ideal and Practical Voltage Source
•Ideal is one where internal resistance does NOT exist. NOTE:
1. For a voltage source, internal resistance must be ZERO.
2. For a current source, internal resistance must be INFINITY.
• Practical is one where internal resistance is present.
 QUICK QUIZ
Identify the type of dependent source used in the network:
A. VCVS
B. CCCS
C. VCCS
D. CCVS
 Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as
the circuit variables.

• Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.

• Applicable to nodes only.

• It is used to find the unknown node voltages.

• This Method is Application of KCL+Ohm’s Law Only

 Steps to Determine Node Voltages
1. Select one nodes out of ‘n’ node as the reference node. Assign
voltages to the remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.

2. Apply KCL to each of the non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to

express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node

voltages.
• The number of non-reference nodes is equal to the number of
independent equations that we have to derive.

• Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor

 QUICK QUIZ
For “N” number of nodes, the number of non-reference nodes is equal to:
A. 𝑁 + 1
B. 𝑁 − 1
C. 2N
D. 2N − 1
 QUICK QUIZ
Nodal analysis, which is based on KCL is used to find unknown:
A. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
B. voltage
 Example 1
• Obtain the node voltages in the given circuit?
 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using
mesh currents as the circuit variables.
• It is based on KVL.
RECALL!
• LOOP: A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
• MESH: A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
• Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only
applicable to a circuit that is planar.
• PLANAR CIRCUIT: A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no
branches crossing one another; otherwise it is nonplanar.
 Steps to Determine Mesh Currents
1. Assign mesh currents to ‘n’ meshes
2. Apply KVL to each of the ‘n’ meshes.
3. Solve the resulting ‘n’ simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
mesh currents.
 Examples of Planar Circuits

NOTE: A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Mesh Analysis can be applied to meshes only inside the circuit, Not to LOOP.
Examples of Non-Planar Circuits
 QUICK QUIZ
Mesh Analysis to applicable to type networks.:
A. Planar and Loop
B. Non planar and mesh
C. Planar and mesh
D. Non planar and Loop
 QUICK QUIZ
Mesh analysis, which is based on KVL is used to find unknown:
A. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
B. voltage
 Example 1
• Obtain the mesh currents in the given circuit?
Thevenin’s Theorem
.
Fundamentals of A.C.
circuits
Contents:
⚫ Alternating Current
⚫ Generating Ac Voltages
⚫ Determination of Frequency (f) In The Ac Generator
Fundamental
⚫ Periodic Voltage Or Current Waveform
⚫ Average Value
⚫ Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
⚫ Average And RMS Values Of Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform
⚫ Single-phase AC Supply
⚫ Purely Resistive Circuit (R Only)
⚫ Purely Inductive Circuit (L Only)
⚫ Purely Capacitive Circuit (C Only)

9
 AC Fundamentals
 Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

 In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in

magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.
Generating AC Voltages
• Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy.
•Generate alternative emf by rotating a coil within a stationary magnetic field.
•Another way to rotating magnetic field a within a stationary coil.

9
Cont….
•The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load.
•The armature loops are wound on a magnetic core

9
⚫ A multi-turn coil is placed inside a magnet with an air gap as shown
in above Fig.
⚫ The flux lines are from North Pole to South Pole. The coil is rotated
at an angular speed,
ω = 2 π n (rad/S)
⚫ N is rotating a rectangular coil in a counter clockwise direction with a
angular velocity of ω radians per sec in a uniform magnetic field.
⚫ The instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with X-axis. At this
instant max flux, link with the coil

⚫ The coil assume the position, as shown in fig ,

after moving the counter clockwise for t sec.
⚫ The angle ө through which the coil has rotated
in sec = ω t.
7
⚫ The component of flux along perpendicular to the coil = Φmax Cos ωt.

⚫ Flux linkage of the coil at the instant = no. of turns on coil x linkage flux
N Φmax Cos ωt
⚫ emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of the flux linkage
with minus sign .
⚫ emf induced is max at any instant.

⚫ Instantaneous emf , e = Emax sin ωt

8 1
0
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 Periodic Voltage or Current Waveform
⚫ Average value
⚫ The current waveform shown in Fig, is periodic in nature, with time period, T.
It is positive for first half cycle, while it is negative for second half cycle.
⚫ The average value of the waveform, i(t) is defined as

⚫ In this case, only half cycle, or half of the time period, is to be used for
computing the average value, as the average value of the waveform over full
cycle is zero (0).
⚫ If the half time period (T/2) is divided into 6 equal time intervals (TΔ)
 Root Mean Square (RMS) value
⚫ For this current in half time period subdivided into 6 time intervals as
given above, in the resistance R, the average value of energy
dissipated is given by
⚫ Heat produce during interval = jouless
Average Values of Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform
⚫ The average value of sine wave over the complete cycle is zero.

⚫ The half wave value of sinusoidal current is

⚫ For half cycle when ωt varies from 0 to π

⚫ Similarly
 RMS Values of Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform
⚫ The waveform of the voltage v(t), and the square of waveform, , are
shown in figures 12.4a and 12.4b respectively.

⚫ Similarly for current RMA value

Form factors
⚫ The form factor of an alternating quantity is define as the ratio of
RMS value to the average value.

⚫Peak value:-
⚫ The peck factor of an alternating quantity is define as the ratio of
maximum value to the average value

⚫ NOTE:-
⚫ The rms value is always greater than the average value.
⚫ Except for a rectangular waveform, in which case the heating effect
remains constant, so that the average and the rms values are same
Question
Q1) determine the average value and RMS value of sinusoidal current
of peak value 40A.
Solution:- Imax = 40A

Q2) write the instantaneous value for a 50Hz sinusoidal voltage supply
for domestic purposes at 230V.
Solution:- given value Vrms = 230 V. , f = 50 Hz
Single-phase AC Supply
⚫ Purely resistive circuit (R only)
⚫ The instantaneous value of the current though the circuit is given by

⚫ Im and Vm are the maximum values of current and voltage respectively

Purely inductive circuit (L only)
⚫ For the circuit , the current i, is obtained by the procedure
described here

⚫
Purely capacitive circuit (C only)
⚫ From our earlier discussions we know that

where Vm is the peak voltage

 is the angular frequency
 is the phase angle
⚫ Since  = 2f it follows that the period T is given by
1 2
T 
f 
⚫ If  is in radians, then a time delay t is given by  / as shown
below
⚫ Sinusoidal signals are characterised by their magnitude,
their frequency and their phase

Amplitude

Period = 1/f

Phase angle

Angular or radian
frequency = 2f = 2/T
 Example 
cos   sin   
 2
v

sin   cos   
 2
i

+
v Circuit
_ element
i

Voltage and current of a circuit element.

The current leads the voltage by  radians.

OR
The voltage lags the current by  radians.
05-10-2021 21 21
Mathematical representation of phasor
⚫ Phasor can be representation in two way.
⚫ Rectangular form
⚫ Polar form
Polar form:-
⚫ The instantaneous voltage v s  V m s i n  t    can be
represented in polar form.

⚫ For example v(t) = 20 sin(2πft + 60).

⚫ Then it represented in the polar form
For Rectangular form:-
⚫ The instantaneous voltagevs  V m s i n   t    can be
represented in Rectangular form.
v(t) = x + jy
Where 'x‘ is x component of the phasor = Vm cos φ
‘y' is y component of the phasor = Vm sin φ

⚫ V(t) = Vm cos φ + j Vm sin φ

Example: v(t) = 20 sin(2πft + 60).

v(t) = 20 (cos 60 + j sin 60). = (10 + j17.32)

Conversion from polar to rectangular:
⚫ Polar form :
⚫ For x component x = r cos φ and y component y = r sin φ
⚫ v(t) = x + jy
⚫ V(t) = r cos φ + j r sin φ

Conversion from rectangular to polar :

⚫ For rectangular form v(t) = x + jy

⚫ For polar form =

Phasor Relationship for R, L, and C Elements
Time domain
v  Ri

Resistor
Frequency domain

V
V  RI or I
R

Voltage and current are in phase.

Inductor

Time domain Frequency domain

V jV
vL
di V  j L I o r I  
jL L
dt
Voltage leads current by 90
Current lags voltage by 90
Capacitor

Time domain Frequency domain

I  jI
I  jCV or V  
dv
jC C
i  C
dt

Voltage lags current by 90

Current leads voltage by 90
Impedance and Admittance
Impedance is defined as the ratio of the phasor
voltage to the phasor current.

Ohm’s law in phasor notation

phase    

magnitude Z
or
Z  Z   Ze j  R  jX
polar exponential rectangular
28
Graphical Representation of Impedance
Z  Z 
Z  R 2
X 2

1 X
  tan
R
R
Resistor ZR
L
Inductor Z  j L
1 j
Capacitor Z   C
jC C
Any Queries