LASER PHYSICS For Engineers
By Saurab Khatiwoda
Khwopa Engineering College
KCE077BCT034
LASER 9
KCE077BCT034 Chapter
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
A laser is device that emits light through a process of
optical amplification based on the stimulated
emission of electromagnetic radiation.
The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore
H.Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based
on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and
Arthur Leonard Schawlow. After this laser action has Theodore H.Maiman
been demonstrated with gases,liquids,solids and
semi-conducter etc.
Characteristics of laser light
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The following are the main characteristics of laser light :-
a) Coherence – The laser beam is coherent both spatially and temporally to a light degree.
From two independent laser beam , interference phenomenon can possible.
b) Directionality – A laser beam is highly directional .
c) Monochromaticity – Laser can produce light in a very narrow wavelength beam.
d) High Intensity – The laser light has a high brightness compared to an ordinary light
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
Consider two atomic states of energies E1 and E2 as shown in N2
figure . The number of electrons in the levels at an absolute E2
temperature T is given by Boltzmann factor . N1
E1
Fig: The relative number of particles
−𝐸1 −𝐸2
in the two energy levels given by
N1=N0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 N2=N 𝑒0 𝑘𝑇 Boltzmann factor.
Hence,
𝑁1
= 𝑒
−(𝐸2−𝐸1)
𝑘𝑇 =𝑒
ℎ𝑓
𝑘𝑇 (i)
𝑁2
Where k is a Boltzmann constant. In thermal equilibrium , the higher states is less populated i.e.
N2 < N1. Where N1 and N2 are the electron number in the ground and higher states respectively.
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
Even at thermodynamics equilibrium , there is on going absorption and emission of radiation .
Consider an atom in state one . If an incoming photon has the correct frequency i.e. hf ,the
photon will be absorbed such that the atom will be raised to level two as shown in figure. This
phenomenon is called absorption.
When an electron is excited from one state to that at a higher energy level with energy
difference ΔE, it will not stay that way forever. Eventually, a photon will be spontaneously
created from the vacuum having energy ΔE . Conserving energy, the electron transitions to a
lower energy level which is not occupied, with transitions to different levels having different time
constants. This process is called “spontaneous emission".
A photon with the correct wavelength to be absorbed by a transition can also cause an
electron to drop from the higher to the lower level, emitting a new photon. The emitted photon
exactly matches the original photon in wavelength, phase and direction. This process is
called stimulated emission.
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
In thermodynamic equilibrium, N2 A21 = N1 B12 ρ this means, the rate of upward transition is equal to the
rate of downward transition . Hence,
𝑁2 𝐴21
ρ=
𝑁1 𝐵12 (ii)
Where N1 and N2 are the electron numbers in ground and higher states respectively,
A21 is Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation and B12 is probability of
transition also called as Einstein’s coefficient for absorption of radiation.
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
𝑁2
Substituting from eq(i) , the function resembles Wien’s radiation law rather than Planck’s
𝑁2
radiation law, describing the energy density of cavity radiation.
This difficulty caused Einstein to propose another mechanism by which an atom can interact
with radiation.
E2 E2
E1 E1
Fig : The stimulated emission. The incoming photon causes a particle in the upper level to fall
to lower level . The emitted photon is coherent in the original photon and both photons move
in same direction.
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
Hence, in stimulated emission the balanced rate of absorption and rate of emission provides,
N1 B12 ρ = N2 (A21 + B21 ρ) (iii)
Therefore, ρ= 𝑁1
𝑁2 𝐴21 (iv)
[ 𝑁2 𝐵12−𝐵21]
𝑁1
Substituting the 𝑁2 from eq(i),ρ is the form of Plank’s law provided B21 = B12 and A21is related to B is
simple way.
𝐴21 1
ρ= (v)
𝐵12 𝑒 ℎ𝑓 −𝐵21
𝑘𝑇 𝐵12
According to Planck’s law of radiation , the energy density
8πℎ𝑓3 1
ρ= ℎ𝑓 (vi)
𝑐3
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
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Spontaneous and stimulated emission KCE077BCT034
Comparing eq(v) and eq(vi),we get,
𝐵21
=1
𝐵12
And we have
A21 = B12 (vii)
And A21 = B21 (viii)
These equation are Einstein’s equations, A21, B12, B21 are Einstein’s coefficient and since B21=B12
So the probability of stimulated emission is same as induced absorption.
Population Inversion
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Under normal circumstances, the higher an energy level is, the less it is populated by thermal energy. Under
some circumstances (for example, the presence of an upper energy level that has a relatively long
lifetime), a system can be constructed so that there are more atoms/molecules in an upper energy level
than is allowed under conditions of normal thermodynamic equilibrium. Such an arrangement is called a
population inversion. When a population inversion exists, an upper-state system will eventually give off a
photon of the proper wavelength and drop to the ground state. This photon, however, can stimulate the
production of other photons of exactly the same wavelength because of stimulated emission of
radiation.Thus, many photons of the same wavelength (and phase, and other similar characteristics) can
be generated in a short time.
Energy
Energy
Normal distribution Population inversion
Pumping
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The state of population inversion cannot be achieved thermally. Generally population inversion is
achieved by exciting the medium with suitable form of energy. Such phenomenon of population occurs
with a process called pumping. There are different methods of pumping a laser to produce population
inversion which is a must for stimulated emission. They are :-
Optical pumping : Optical pumping is a process in which light is used to raise (or "pump") electrons from
a lower energy level in an atom or molecule to a higher one. It is commonly used in laser construction
to pump the active laser medium so as to achieve population inversion.
Fig : Optical pumping device
Pumping
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Chemical reaction : A laser pumped by energy released from chemical reactions or chemically
produced species involved in laser medium. If an atom or a molecule is produced through some
chemical reaction and remains in an excited state at the time of production, then it can be used for
pumping. The hydrogen fluoride molecule is produced in an excited state when hydrogen and fluorine
gas chemically combine. The number of produced excited atoms or molecules is greater than the
number of normal state atoms or molecules. Thus, population inversion is achieved. For example, H2 +
F2 → 2HF, in this chemical reaction, hydrogen (H2) and fluorine (F2) molecules are chemically combined
to produce hydrogen fluoride molecule (2HF) in an excited state.
Fig: Chemical pumping
Pumping
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Electric discharge : In this method of pumping, electric discharge acts as the pump source or energy
source. A high voltage electric discharge (flow of electrons, electric charge, or electric current) is
passed through the laser medium or gas. The intense electric field accelerates the electrons to high
speeds and they collide with neutral atoms in the gas. As a result, the electrons in the lower energy
state gains sufficient energy from external electrons and jumps into the higher energy state. This
method of pumping is used in gas lasers such as argon lasers.
Fig : Argon lasers
Pumping
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Inelastic atom atom collision : When high voltage electric discharge passes through a laser medium
having two types of gases X and Y, the lower energy state electrons in gas X will move to the excited
state X+ similarly the lower energy state electrons in gas Y moves to the excited state Y+. Initially,
during electric discharge, the lower energy state electrons in gas X or atom X gets excited to X+ due
to continuous collision with electrons. The excited state electrons in gas X+ now collide with the lower
energy state electrons in gas Y. As a result, the lower energy state electrons in gas Y gains sufficient
energy and jump into the excited state Y+. This method is used in the Helium–Neon (He-Ne) laser.
Fig : Helium–Neon (He-Ne) laser
Pumping
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Direct Conversion : In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap
semiconductor like Ga As, recombination of electrons and holes takes place. During the
recombination process, the electrical energy is directly is converted into light energy.
Direct Conversion in semi-conductor
Fig : Semi-conductor laser
Helium Neon Laser
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The first gas laser to be operated successfully was the He-Neon Laser. A Javan in 1960, operated the first
Continuous wave laser using the mixture of these gases in discharge tube.
The He-Neon laser consists of a long and discharge tube of diameter about 2-8mm and length of 80-
100cm . The discharge tube consists the mixture of two gases in the ratio of 15% Helium and 85% Neon gas.
The electrodes in the discharge tube is connected with high voltage source D.C. Two reflecting mirrors
one is fully reflecting and other is partially reflecting , are fit at the opposite ends of tube. With high
voltage some of He atom are raised to a metastable state at E1 = 20.61 eV above the ground state as
shown in figure. The metastable state of Neon is at same energy E2 = 20.66 eV. The He atoms do not
quickly return to the ground state by spontaneous emission rather it transfer the energy to Ne-atoms
during collision.
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With such collision the energy of excited He atoms is excited to the state E3.The small difference of 0.005
eV is supplied the kinetic energy of the atoms. In this way, the higher state E3 of Neon becomes the
metastable state than E2. Therefore, the population inversion is achieved for Ne atoms. Hence the lasing
action takes place by stimulated emission between the E3 and E2 states of Neon. The laser light emitted is
of about 632.8nm.
Collision
Helium Metastable Neon
E1 E3
632 nm
1.96eV
20.61eV E2
18.70eV
E0 E’0
Fig: The four energy levels involved in the He-Neon Laser. The metastable state E3 of the Ne
atoms is populated by collision into the electrons in the state E1 of the He atoms.
Semi Conductor Laser
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Semiconductor laser (LD) is a device that causes
laser oscillation by flowing an electric current to semi
conductor . The mechanism of light emission is the same as
a light-emitting diode (LED). Light is generated by flowing
the forward current to a p-n junction.
In forward bias operation, the p-type layer is connected
with the positive terminal and the n-type layer is
connected with the negative terminal, electrons enter
from the n-type layer and holes from the p-type layer.
When the two meet at the junction, an electron drops into
a hole and light is emitted at the time.
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Semi Conductor Laser KCE077BCT034
The basic structure of a semiconductor laser is shown in
figure.The active layer (light emission layer) sandwiched
between the p- and n-type clad layers (double
heterostructure) is formed on an n-type substrate, and
voltage is applied across the p-n junction from the
electrodes. Both edges of the active layer has mirror-like
surface.
When forward voltage is applied, electrons combine with
holes at the p-n junction, and emitt the light. This light is not a
laser yet; it is confined within the active layer because the
refractive index of the clad layers are lower than that of the Fig: Basic structure for semi conductor
active layer. In addition, both ends of the active layer act as
a reflecting mirror where the light reciprocates in the active
layer. Then, the light is amplified by the stimulated emission
process and laser oscillation is generated. This type of laser
first obtained in Ga As .Later InP ,InAs ,InAs , InSb etc are used
for laser production.
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Uses of LASER KCE077BCT034
Some uses of laser in modern life are:-
Medical Applications : Lasers are used for eye surgery and vision correction and for treatment of
detached retina, dentistry, treatment of skin diseases, tumor and cancer.
Metrology : Lasers are widely used in optical metrology, e.g. for extremely precise position
measurements and optical surface profiling with interferometers, for long-distance range finding and
navigation.
Data Storage : Optical data storage e.g. in compact disks (CDs), DVDs, Blu-ray Discs and magneto-
optical disks, nearly always relies on a laser source, which has a high spatial coherence and can thus
be used to address very tiny spots in the recording medium, allowing a very high density data storage.
Another case is holography, where the temporal coherence can also be important.
Displays : Laser projection displays containing RGB sources can be used for cinemas, home videos,
flight simulators, etc., and are often superior to other displays concerning possible screen dimensions,
resolution and color saturation.
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Uses of LASER KCE077BCT034
Military Application: Some high-power lasers are currently developed for potential use as directed
energy weapons on the battle field, or for destroying missiles, projectiles and mines.
Communication:, Optical fiber communication extensively used particularly for long-distance optical
data transmission, mostly relies on laser light in optical glass fibers. Free-space optical communications,
e.g. for inter-satellite communications, is based on higher-power lasers, generating collimated laser
beams which propagate over large distances with small beam divergence . One may also transmit
analog RF and microwave signals using radio and microwave over fiber technology.
Laser-aided Manufacturing : Lasers are widely used for laser material processing in manufacturing, e.g.
for cutting, drilling, welding, cladding, soldering (brazing), hardening, surface modification, marking,
engraving, micromachining, pulsed laser deposition, lithography, etc. In many cases, relatively
high optical intensities are applied to a small spot, leading to intense heating, possibly evaporation
and plasma generation. Essential aspects are the high spatial coherence of laser light, allowing for
strong focusing, and often also the potential for generating intense pulses.
Holography
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Holography is a technique to make 3D picture with the help of laser. The photographic
recording of such 3D images is called a hologram, which appears to be an unrecognizable
pattern of stripes and whorls but which-when illuminated by coherent light, as by a laser beam
organizes the light into a three-dimensional representation of the original object.
Hologram look like original objects(continuous
loop of 3D recording) but not reality.
Fig : Method of making Holograms
A hologram photo
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