SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS IN THE LABORATORY THERMONUCLEAR FUSION

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS • Uses extremely high temperature

• Shows the tabular arrangement of tabular elements • Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of a particle
GROUP (FAMILY)-Exhibit related physical and chemical
properties TRANSMUTATION

PERIOD-Order elements in increasing atomic number To distinguish between the different isotopes of an
element, and to determine the element’s number of
• NUCLIDE - atomic species characterized by the specific
protons, neutrons and electrons, we use nuclear
constitution of its nucleus
notation as shown below:
Atomic Number indicates the number of protons
present in an element

Atomic Mass indicates the mass of both protons and

neutrons

• Discovered or synthesized

• 94 natural occurring elements

• 24 synthetic elements

SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS Ex: Nitrogen can be transformed into oxygen by

bombarding an alpha particle into the nucleus of
• a chemical element that does not occur naturally on
nitrogen. An atom of hydrogen is produced as part of
Earth
the transformation
• can only be created artificially

• radioactive and decay rapidly into lighter elements

• only occur on Earth as the product of atomic bombs or

experiments The radioactive decay of radium-226 by alpha decay to
give radon-222. A radium-226 nucleus emits one alpha
NUCLEAR REACTION
particle, leaving behind a radon-222 nucleus.
• Term implied that causes a nuclide to change by
bombarding it with energetic particle

• Involves a heavy target nucleus and a light

bombarding particle
The first transuranium element was discovered by E.M.
• Produces a heavier product nucleus McMillan and P.H. Abelson in 1940 at university of
California, Berkeley and was named Neptonium
• Emits a very high electromagnetic energy

NUCLEAR REACTION INVOLVED IN SYNTHESIS OF NEW

ELEMENT IN THE LABARATORY

1. Capture Reaction

2. Fission Reaction

3. Fusion reaction

1
Polarity of Molecule Lesson 1: ELECTRONEGATIVITY in electron density and thus, develops a slight negative
charge or partial negative charge (δ- ).
Electronegativity
On the other side, electron density is less on the side of
• refers to the extent of attraction of an atom for a
the atom with lower electronegativity, and that atom
shared pair of electron.
gains a slight positive charge (δ+ )
• It is a measure of the attraction of an atom for
Non-Polar Bond
electrons in a covalent bond.
Non polar bond develops if both atoms equally share a
• The larger the electronegativity of an atom, the more
pair of electron between them.
strongly it attracts electrons.
• This happens when the bonding atoms have
• The greater the difference between the
approximately equal ability to attract electron on each
electronegativity of the two atoms involved in the bond,
side (equal electronegativity value).
the greater is the polarity of the molecule.
The electron density is spread evenly (or essentially
evenly) between the two atoms in the bond. Since a pair
Using the periodic table, electronegativity increases of electrons is shared equally between atoms, here is no
from left to right which means that nonmetals are more partial charge created, hence, no dipole moment.
electronegative than metals.
Ionic Bond

Ionic bond
Bond polarity based on the electronegativity (EN)
• type of linkage formed from the electrostatic
difference between the atoms present in a molecule is
attraction between oppositely charged ions in a
one good way to determine the polarity of a molecule,
chemical compound.
whether a molecule is polar or nonpolar
• Such a bond forms when the valence (outermost)
electrons of one atom are transferred permanently to
another atom

TYPE OF BONDS

Polar Bond

• Polar bonds occur when electron pairs are unequally

shared due to the difference in electronegativity of the
atoms.

• The greater the difference in electronegativity

between two atoms, the more polar their bond is.

• Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms creates a

dipole (two poles)

This means that one end of a polar bond is more

negative while the other end is more positive.

The atom with higher electronegativity value increases

Why is polarity of molecules important?

• Polarity is important because it determines whether a

molecule is hydrophilic (from the Greek for waterloving)
or hydrophobic (from the Greek for water-fearing or
water-averse).

• Molecules with high polarity are hydrophilic, and mix

well with other polar compounds such as water

Polar molecules are important in helping to establish

the three-dimensional structure or orientation of other
larger molecules

Lesson 2: Molecular Geometry : VSEPR (Valence Shell

Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory

What is Electron Configuration?

Electron configurations describe where electrons are

located around the nucleus of an atom.

Valence electrons

are the electrons located at the outermost shell of an

atom

Lewis structures

• (also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot

structures) are diagrams that represent the valence
electrons of atoms within a molecule.

• These Lewis symbols and Lewis structures help

visualize the valence electrons of atoms and molecules,
whether they exist as lone pairs or within bonds

Molecular Geometry

Molecular geometry pertains to the threedimensional

arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
• Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties
of molecules and their reactivity towards other
molecules.

• Molecular geometry can be determined by

experiment such as x-ray diffraction.

The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called

the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
(VSEPR)

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:

1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as

possible to minimize repulsions.

2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of

bond pairs and lone pairs around the central atom.

3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in

making the prediction).

4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone

pair – lone pair repulsions are greater than lone pair –
bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than
Guidelines for Applying the VSEPR Model
bond pair – bond pair repulsions
1. Write the Lewis structure of the molecule,
To describe the difference between lone pairs and
considering only the electron pairs around the central
bonding pairs, please refer to the illustrations below. In
atom (that is,the atom that is bonded to more than one
the Lewis structure of F2 molecule on the right, it shows
other atom). For a molecule in which the atom is
that there are a total of six (6) lone pairs surrounding
bonded to another single atom like O2 and HCl, the
the F and only one (1) bond pair between two F.
geometrical shape is obviously linear.

2. Count the number of electron pairs around the

central atom (bonding pairs and lone pairs). Treat
double and triple bonds as though they were single
bonds.

3. Use Tables 2 to predict the geometry of the molecule.

4. In predicting bond angles, note that a lone pair repels

another lone pair or a bonding pair more strongly than a
Arrangement of Electron Pairs and its Corresponding bonding pair repels another bonding pair. Remember
VSEPR Shape that in general there is no easy way to predict bond
angles accurately when the central atom possesses one
*Note that the arrangement of electron pair does not or more lone pairs.
necessarily mean the same to its molecular geometry.
The molecular geometry is determined by the position Nonpolar molecule
of the nuclei of the atoms. We do not “see” lone pairs. • A molecule is nonpolar if the shape of the molecule is
symmetrical.
• This is due to the equal sharing of electrons hence, no On the other hand, since alcohol is a polar molecule, it
dipole moment is produced thus, the valence electrons will form a solution with water. Moreover, oil and
are shared equally on both sides of an atom. Example: kerosene are both nonpolar substances; thus, they will
O2, F2, Cl2 and other diatomic molecules containing form a solution
atoms of the same element
Polar molecules are molecules in which the overall
Polar Molecules dipole moment in a molecule does not cancel out. The
chemical structure of water is seen below.
• A molecule is polar, if the shape of the molecule is
asymmetrical. This is due to the unequal sharing of Since water has a bent shape and the hydrogen-oxygen
electrons between atoms creating a dipole moment. bonds have significant dipole moments that do not
cancel out; water is a polar molecule.
Example: HCl, HF where Cl and F atoms are more
electronegative than H atom Generally, molecules with oxygen atoms, nitrogen
atoms and ionizable group (-CO2H and–SO2H) tend to
be polar.
POLARITY-OF-MOLECULES-AND-ITS-PROPERTIES
The chemical structure of vegetable oil is seen below.
The following terms used in this module are defined as
The long fatty acid chains mainly contain carbon-
follows:
hydrogen bonds which have essentially no dipole
Nonpolar molecule – when electron density is moment.
distributed symmetrically within the molecule
Therefore, oil is [Link], the more carbon
Polar molecule – when electron density is distributed and hydrogen atoms a molecule have, the more
asymmetrically throughout the molecule. It contains a nonpolar it will be
“negative” end and a “positive” end

Solubility – is a property referring to the ability of a Liquids will mix when both are polar or both are
given substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent nonpolar, but do not mix when one is polar and the
other is nonpolar.
Miscibility – is the property of two substances to mix in
all proportions, forming ahomogeneous solution This phenomenon happens because polar molecules
have partially positive and partially negative sides to
Miscible – two liquids that combine in any ratio to form them.
a homogeneous solution
Since the oil and water do not mix, this shows that polar
Immiscible – two liquids that do not combine in any and non-polar solutions do not mix.
ration to form a homogenous solution
On the other hand, kerosene, having chemical formula
Emulsifier – or emulsifying agent is a compound or of C16H32 is long chain hydrogen and carbon
substance that acts as a stabilizer foremulsions, (hydrocarbon) molecule has definitely no positive and
preventing liquids that ordinarily do not mix from negative ends; thus, making kerosene a nonpolar
separating molecule. This makes kerosene miscible with oil but not
in water.

Polar molecules will mix to form solutions and Sugar the common name for sucrose has a molecular
nonpolarmolecules will also mix to form solutions, but a formula of C12H22O11 and has a structural formula
polar and nonpolar combination will not form a shown on the right.
solution. Water is a polar molecule and oil is a nonpolar The bond between O-H bonds gives partial negative on
molecule. Thus, they will not form a solution. the oxygen atom and a partial positive on the hydrogen
atom just like with water. This makes sugar a polar
compound, thus, soluble in water but insoluble in oil
Soap molecules have both properties of non-polar and • Various physical and chemical properties of a
polar molecules; the soap acts as an emulsifier, or substance are dependent on this force.
something that is capable of diffusing one liquid into
another unmixable liquid.
Generally, they are called van der Waals forces, named
The principle of soap works because soap is made up of
after the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals.
molecules with two very different ends.

One is hydrophilic (water loving) polar molecule, and it

is this end of the soap molecule that loves water. This is The different types of intermolecular forces of
the "salt" end of the soap; it is ionic and soluble in attraction (IMFA) are:
water.
1. London dispersion forces (LDF)
The hydrophobic (water fearing) nonpolar molecule
end does not mix with water, and is, therefore, repelled 2. Dipole-dipole forces
by it. 3. Hydrogen bonding

London Dispersion Forces

When you mix soap and water, the soap molecules • Dispersion force is present in all molecules.
position themselves into micelles, or tiny clusters.
• It is the only force present in nonpolar molecules.
The hydrophilic part of the soap moleculespoints out,
whereas the hydrophobic parts group together on the • It is very weak and acts in very small distances.
inside. It is formed due to the attraction between the positively
The hydrophobic parts do not come into contact with charged nucleus of an atom with the negatively charged
the water at all, due to the repulsion. These collect the electron cloud of a nearby atom. This interaction creates
oil particles in the center, as shown in the figure above. an induced dipole

The oil is trapped in the soap, and then when water is

washed over your hands, the hydrophilic parts are Dipole-dipole Forces
attracted to water, taking the soap, and the dirt
connected to the soap with it. Dipole-dipole forces Occurs between polar molecules.

This is due to the partial positive pole and the partial

negative pole of the molecule.
Intermolecular-Forces
Average dipole-dipole interaction is relatively weak,
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ATTRACTION around 4kJ/ mol. This interaction is effective over a very
• Interaction has always been a part of our daily lives. short range.

• We connect to other things (biotic or abiotic) in order Example:

to survive. HCl is a polar molecule. It has partially positive and
• This law of nature is also applicable to the tiniest partially negative [Link] partially positive end of the
compositions of each and every thing that you can see molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of
around you. another molecule.

Intermolecular forces TIP: In assessing the relative strengths of dipoledipole

forces between two different substances, compare their
• an attractive force that arises between thepositive polarities. A more polar substance will have stronger
components (or protons) of one molecule and the dipole– dipole forces compared to a less polar one.
negative components (or electrons) of another
molecule.
HYDROGEN BOND  Melting point is the temperature at which the
substance changes from solid to liquid.
Hydrogen bond is a very strong dipole-dipole
 Stronger intermolecular forces means greater
interaction. Hydrogen bond occurs in polar molecules
amount of energy is needed to break the
containing H and any one ofthe highly electronegative
attractive forces between molecules.
elements, in particular F, O, N.
Substances with stronger IMFA have higher
Hydrogen tends to be strongly positive due to the strong melting points compared to those with weaker
tendencies of F, O, or N to attract the electron towards IMFA
it. The highly electronegative elements make hydrogen
Boiling point
strongly positive.
 Boiling point is the temperature at which the
Consider the water molecule, [Link] hydrogen of one
substance changes from liquid to gas.
molecule is attracted to the oxygen atom of another
 Similar to melting point, stronger intermolecular
molecule
forces means greater amount of energy is
needed to break the attractive forces between
molecules. Substances with stronger IMFA have
Properties Dependent on IMFA
higher boiling points compared to those with
Phase at room temperature When molecules have weaker IMFA.
strong intermolecular forces of attraction, they are
Surface Tension
packed close together.
 Surface Tension is the tendency of a fluid to
They often exist as condensed phase (solid or liquid) at
acquire the least possible surface area.
room temperature.
 Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces
When molecules have weak intermolecular forces of will exert greater cohesive forces and acquire
attraction, they are far apart from each other. They less surface area (higher surface tension) than
often exist as gas at room temperature. those with weaker IMFA.

Viscosity

Properties dependent on the IMFA:  Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to

flow.
•Solubility
 Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces
•Melting point have greater resistance to flow, and thus, higher
viscosity compared to those with weaker IMFA.
•Boiling point
Vapor Pressure
•Surface Tension
•Viscosity  Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by a
vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase in a
•Vapor pressure closed system.
Solubility  Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces
have less tendency to escape as gas, and thus
 Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to lower vapor pressure compared to those with
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a weaker IMFA
specified temperature.
 Recall the rule “like dissolves like.” When the BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
solute and the solvent both exhibit the same The macromolecules in three of the four classes of life’s
intermolecular forces of attraction, they form a organic compoundscarbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic
solution. acids- are chain-like molecules called polymers (from
Melting point the Greek polys, many and meros, part). A polymer is a
long molecule consisting of many similar or identical The examples of Polysaccharide (many saccharides)
building blocks linked by covalent bonds, much as a train are:
consists of chain cars. The repeating units that serve as
Starch / Amylose - Composed of 250 - 400 glucose
the building blocks of a polymer are smaller molecules
molecules connected via α-1-4- glycosidic bond. It is a
called monomers (from the Greek monos, single). Some
storage form of glucose in plants
of the molecules that serve as monomers also have
other functions of their own. Amylopectin - Like amylose but has more branches
attached via α-1-6 glycosidic bond. It is a storage form of
glucose in plants
CARBOHYDRATES
Glycogen -Composed of more glucose, more highly
 The word carbohydrate may be broken down to branched (same type of bond as amylopectin) . It is
carbon and hydrate. storage form of glucose in animals, stored in the liver
 From the chemical formula of carbohydrate, and muscles
notice that the ratio of C:H:O is [Link], which can
Cellulose -Composed of glucose units connected via β-1-
be rewritten as Cn(H2O)n.
4 glycosidic bond, linear chain arranged in a parallel
 Carbohydrates can be seen as hydrates of
manner . It is a structural material in plants--cell wall in
carbon.
wood, wood fiber cannot be digested by humans
 This is a traditional but incorrect understanding
of carbohydrates but it still presents a useful
picture of the molecule.
PROTEIN
 Another term for carbohydrate is saccharide.
This term is derived from the Latin word The word protein came from the Greek term “proteios”
saccharum referring to sugar--a common meaning first. One can think of protein as the beginning
carbohydrate of life. From egg albumin being pure protein to sperm
and egg cells, we all start from proteins. Proteins are
Carbohydrates are classified either as:
composed of four elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen,
Simple - monosaccharides and disaccharides oxygen and nitrogen. Sulfur and other metals are
sometimes also found in proteins. If carbohydrates are
Complex – polysaccharides
made up of saccharides, proteins are made up of amino
acids. An amino acid is a molecule that has an amine
and a carboxyl group.
Examples of monosaccharide (one saccharide) are:
There are 20 amino acids. The combination of many
• Glucose -used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form amino acids creates protein. Amino acids are joined
utilized by the human body together with a peptide bond. Proteins are also called
• Galactose -found in milk and milk products polypeptides.

• Fructose -found in fruits and honey

There are different examples of proteins. These are:

examples of Disaccharide (two saccharides) are: • Keratin. It is a structural protein found in hair, skin,
and nails. It is a highly cross-linked protein containing α-
• Maltose - Glucose + Glucose Found in malt helix and β-pleated sheets. Sheep’s wool is made largely
• Sucrose - Glucose + Fructose Found in regular table of keratin.
sugar, • Fibroin. It is found in silk. Silk has a smooth and soft
• Lactose - Glucose + Galactose sugarcane, and sugar texture. It is one of the strongest natural fibers that have
beet Found in milk and milk products high resistance to deformation. It is also a good
insulation. Silk is primarily composed of β-pleated
sheets. The long polypeptide chain doubles back on its b. Triglycerides
own running parallel connected together by H-bonds.
c. Phospholipids
• Collagen. It is a major insoluble fibrous protein found
d. Steroids
in connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin,
cartilage and the cornea of the eye. It comprises as Examples of Lipids are:
much as 30% of proteins in animals. Its strength is
attributed to its triple helix structure comprising of α- Fatty acids.
helices braided together. When several triple helices  It is essential to understanding lipids. Fatty
combine, they form the fibrils that make up connective acids are longchain carboxylic acids that are
tissues insoluble in water. Fatty acids can besaturated
• Enzymes. It functions to catalyze chemical reactions. or unsaturated.
They either speed up a reaction, lower the needed  Saturated fatty acids contain single bonds in its
energy for a reaction to take place, or bind substances hydro-carbon chain whereas unsaturated fatty
to their specific partners. Enzymes themselves are very acids contain double bonds. An easy way to
specific as can be seen in their shape. remember saturated fatty acids is to think of
them as “saturated” with hydrogen. All the
Examples of enzymes are: carbon molecules have two hydrogen atoms
attached to it. In unsaturated fatty acids,
(1) Lipase - help in digestion of fats;
carbons with a double bond only have one
(2) Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into hydrogen atom attached to it hence being
peptides (smaller units); “unsaturated.” Saturated fatty acids allow their
molecules to fit close together and form strong
(3) Sucrase - also called invertase, help in the digestion
attraction. They usually have high melting
of sugars and starches.
points and are solid at room temperature.
 Unsaturated fatty acids are bent because of
the double bond and are therefore, not as close
Myoglobin- It is a polypeptide that stores oxygen in
together as saturated fatty acids. They are often
muscles. It is a globular protein comprised of 153 amino
irregularly shaped. Unsaturated fatty acids have
acids in a single polypeptide chain. It contains a heme
a low melting point and are liquid at room
group which has an iron (II) ion at its center. This is
temperature. Lipids containing either saturated
where the oxygen is stored.
or unsaturated fatty acids somehow are able to
• Hemoglobin- It is a globular protein that carries retain these properties.
oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream. It is
• Triglyceride Fat and oil are the most common
composed of four sub-units, each containing a heme
examples of lipids. They are under triglycerides because
group that enables it to transport four oxygen molecules
they are composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
at a time.
• Fat refers to solid triglyceride usually from animal
sources such as meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs, and
LIPIDS cheese. Oil refers to liquid triglycerides from plant
sources. Examples are olive oil, corn oil, sunflower oil,
The word lipid comes from the Greek word “lipos” and soybean oil. Animal fat contains high percentages of
which means fat. Lipids are a family of biomolecules saturated fatty acids while plant oil is mostly
having varied structures. They are grouped together unsaturated fatty acids.
simply because of their hydrophilic property (water-
fearing). They are soluble in non-polar solvents such as • Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a
ether, acetone, and benzene. phosphate group. Unlike other lipids, phospholipids
have a polar and non-polar end. This property allows it
Lipids can be classified into four categories: to transport molecules in the bloodstream. It is also a
a. Wax major component in the cell membrane. The two parts
of a phospholipid can be termed as the hydrophilic The nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA are:
head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tail (fatty acid
DNA’s : Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and
group). This dual property allows phospholipids to form
Thymine (T) RNA’s
a phospholipid bilayer. In this configuration, the
hydrophilic head sticks out while the hydrophobic tail is : Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U).
tucked in and away from the watery environment. This
is why phospholipids are suitable as cell membrane. DNA has a different sugar group than RNA. DNA has
deoxyribose while RNA has ribose.

NUCLEIC ACID

Nucleic acids play an essential role in the storage,

transfer, and expression of genetic information. Nucleic
acid was discovered by a twenty-fouryear-old Swiss
physician named Friedrich Miescher in 1868. He was
puzzled that an unknown substance in white blood cells
did not resemble carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. He
was able to isolate the substance from the nucleus and
initially called it nuclein. He eventually was able to break
down nuclein into protein and nucleic acids. He found
out that nucleic acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus.

The most common examples of nucleic acids are:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

RNA(ribonucleic acid)

DNA is a nucleic acid that carries the genetic code of

organisms. It is fondly termed as the blueprint of life.

RNA, on another hand, carries the information from the

DNA to the cellular factories for the synthesis of
proteins.

If carbohydrates are composed of saccharide units,

proteins of amino acids, and lipids of fatty acids, nucleic
acids are composed of nucleotides.

Nucleic acids are also known as polynucleotides.

A nucleotide has three parts:

a. Nitrogenous base;

[Link]-carbon carbohydrate or sugar;

c. Phosphate group