Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

BACHELOR OF COMPUTER
APPLICATIONS
SEMESTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 1

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 3
Limit and Continuity

Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ /

Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction - -
3-4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Limit and Continuity - - 5-7
3 First Principle of Limits (ε-δ Definition) - - 8-9
4 Properties of Limits 1 -

4.1 L'Hôpital's Rule - -

10-19
4.2 Squeeze Theorem - -

4.3 Examples - -
5 Continuity of Sum of Two Continuous Functions - - 19-20
6 Continuity of Product of Two Continuous - - 21-22
Functions
7 Continuity of Difference of Two Continuous - - 22-23
Functions
8 Continuity of Quotient of Two Continuous - - 23-24
Functions
9 Summary - - 25-26
10 Self-Assessment Questions - 1 26-30
11 Terminal Questions - - 31
12 Answers - - 32-35

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 2

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

1. INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2, we embarked on an enlightening journey through the world of composite functions,
a domain where the elegance of mathematics truly unfolds. Composite functions, at their
core, represent the amalgamation of two distinct functions, creating a third function that
encapsulates the sequential application of the first two. This concept mirrors the procedural
steps in computer algorithms, where the output of one process seamlessly transitions into
the input of another, showcasing the interconnectedness of mathematical operations.

But our exploration didn't stop there. We delved deeper into the arithmetic of functions,
examining how operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division play out
when applied to functions. It's akin to mixing ingredients in precise measures to concoct a
new recipe, each operation unveiling new flavours of mathematical functions.

Furthermore, we ventured into the rhythmic world of periodic functions, unveiling the
repetitive patterns that underpin phenomena like the oscillations of a pendulum or the
cycles of the moon. This segment highlighted the predictability and cyclicity inherent in
certain functions, echoing the recurrent nature of events in both mathematics and the real
world.

The concepts of even and odd functions added another layer to our understanding,
illustrating how functions mirror themselves across axes or pivot around origins, much like
symmetrical patterns in nature or architecture.

As we transition into Unit 3, the focus shifts towards the foundational concepts of limits and
continuity—a pivotal area of study for any aspiring computer application specialist. Limits,
in their abstract beauty, allow us to grasp the behaviour of functions as they approach a
particular point, shedding light on the tendencies of functions under constrained conditions.
This concept is crucial for understanding algorithms' efficiency and behaviours, especially
when dealing with near-boundary conditions in computing tasks.

Continuity, on the other hand, ensures a seamless transition within functions, an attribute
vital for ensuring that algorithms and software functions perform without unexpected
disruptions. Understanding these concepts is akin to mastering the art of predicting and

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 3

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

ensuring smooth transitions in computational processes, a skill indispensable in the realm

of computer applications.

Navigating through these complex mathematical concepts requires a strategic approach,

blending theoretical understanding with practical application. It's essential to start with a
solid grasp of basic definitions and properties, gradually layering on complexity through
examples and exercises. Visual aids such as graphs and diagrams play a crucial role in
demystifying abstract concepts, making them more accessible.

Collaboration and discussion with peers can illuminate different perspectives, enhancing
comprehension. Moreover, applying these mathematical concepts to real-world scenarios
and computational problems can bridge the gap between theory and practice, making the
learning process both relevant and engaging.

1.1 Objectives
In this topic we will learn about,
❖ Recall the fundamental definitions of limit and continuity in mathematics
❖ Explain the concept of limits as the behaviour of functions near a particular point
❖ Apply the first principle of limits (ε-δ definition) to evaluate limits of functions at specific
points
❖ Analyse the continuity of functions by examining their behaviour around specific points

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 4

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

2. LIMIT AND CONTINUITY

Definition of Limit
In mathematics, the limit of a function represents the value that the function approaches as
the input gets closer and closer to a particular point. It's a fundamental concept for
understanding the behaviour of functions, especially when dealing with values that might
not be defined at that specific point.

The notion of a limit is a fundamental cornerstone in the field of calculus, acting as a crucial
link between the realm of mathematical functions and the empirical events they represent.
The concept of limit characterises the behaviour of a mathematical function when its input
values converge towards a certain point. Mathematically speaking, the concept of a limit of a
function at a certain point refers to the value that the function tends to approach as the input
values progressively approach that particular point.

In a more formal context, we shall examine a function denoted as f(x) and a specific point
referred to as 'a'. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches a, represented as lim(x→a)
f(x), is defined as the value L such that for any positive ε (epsilon), there exists a
corresponding positive δ (delta) such that if the absolute difference between x and a (|x - a|)
is smaller than δ, then the absolute difference between f(x) and L (|f(x) - L|) is smaller than
ε. This statement encompasses the concept that by selecting a value of 'x' in close proximity
to 'a', we have the ability to approach the desired value 'L' for the function f(x) to an arbitrary
degree.

A function y = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to tend to limit 𝑙 as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎, if the difference between the
values of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑙 becomes smaller and smaller, whenever the difference between the
values of 𝑥 and 𝑎 is smaller and smaller.

We write it symbolically as

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙
𝒙→𝑎

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 5

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Definition of Continuity
A function is said to be continuous at a point 'a' if the limit of the function at 'a' exists and is
equal to the value of the function at 'a'. In other words, there are no sudden jumps or breaks
in the graph of a continuous function.

Continuity is a fundamental attribute of functions that guarantees a seamless and

uninterrupted linkage between locations inside their respective domains. A function is
deemed to exhibit continuity at a certain point if there are no sudden discontinuities or
discontinuities in its graph at that moment. In more accessible language, it is possible to trace
the graph of a continuous function without the need to raise one's writing instrument,
therefore demonstrating a smooth and uninterrupted transition from one value to another.

In order for a function to exhibit continuity at a given point 'a', it is necessary for three
specific requirements to be satisfied:

It is necessary for the function to have a well-defined value at the point 'a'.

The existence of the limit of the function as x approaches 'a' is a necessary condition.

It is necessary for the value of the function at 'a' to be equivalent to the value of the limit.

The concept of continuity guarantees that when the independent variable approaches a
specific point, the function's values do not experience abrupt alterations, but rather exhibit
a seamless transition from one value to the subsequent. The comprehension of this notion
has significant importance in comprehending the behaviour of functions across many
mathematical domains, encompassing calculus, analysis, and its applications in physics,
engineering, and other related fields.

Example 1: Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Solution: First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value is 5.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(2𝑥 + 1) = 2(1) + 3 = 5

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 6

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Thus

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 5 = 𝑓(1)
𝑥→1

Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.

Example 2: Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.

Solution: First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 = 02 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Thus,

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = 𝑓(0)
𝑥→0

Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.

Example 3: Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.

Solution: By definition

−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0

Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− (−𝑥) = 0

𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

Similarly, the right-hand limit of f at 0 is

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

Thus, the left-hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at

x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 7

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

3. FIRST PRINCIPLE OF LIMITS (Ε-Δ DEFINITION)

The first principle of limits, also known as the ε-δ definition, provides a formal way to express
the concept of limit. It states that for a function f(x), the limit as x approaches a point 'a' is 'L'
if, for any positive ε (epsilon), there exists a positive δ (delta) such that if the distance
between x and a (|x - a|) is less than δ, then the distance between f(x) and L (|f(x) - L|) is less
than ε.

The First Principle of Limits, also known as the - (epsilon-delta) definition, provides a logical
and accurate approach to express the concept of limits in the field of calculus. This concept
establishes the fundamental basis for comprehending the behaviour of a function when its
input values converge towards a certain point. The mathematical framework presented in
this study provides a means of quantifying the concept of "closeness" between input values
and the corresponding function values.

Let us consider a function f(x) and a specific point 'a' at which we aim to compute the limit.
According to the given definition, the limit of the function f(x) as x approaches an is L if, for
each arbitrarily small positive value of ε (epsilon), there exists a matching positive value of
δ (delta) such that the function values are also within a specified closeness to L. As the
independent variable approaches a specific value 'a', the corresponding values of the
function tend to converge towards a limit 'L' within a predetermined proximity.

Mathematically, the expression of this connection is as follows:

For every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x - a| < δ, then |f(x) - L| < ε.

For each given positive value of ε, there exists a positive value of δ such that if the absolute
value of the difference between x and an is less than δ and more than zero, then the absolute
value of the difference between f(x) and L is less than ε.

The crux of this formulation is in the comprehension that by judiciously choosing a suitable
δ for any given ε, we may regulate the proximity of the function values to the limit 'L' as the
input values approach 'a'. The ε-δ definition effectively encapsulates the concept of a limit by
rigorously formalising the idea of "approaching arbitrarily close" through the use of
mathematical inequalities. This concept forms the basis for the analysis of limits and plays a

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 8

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

crucial role in defining the fundamental principles of calculus and its applications across
many domains of mathematics and science.

Illustration of concept of limit

Consider the function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) defined by 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒

Table - 1
𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒚−𝟔

0.9 5.80 0.2

0.95 5.95 0.05

0.99 5.96 0.04

0.995 5.99 0.01

0.999 5.998 0.002

0.9999 5.9998 0.002

: : :

: : :

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 9

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

4. PROPERTIES OF LIMITS
Sum Rule: The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their individual limits.

The Sum Rule is a fundamental property that governs the behaviour of limits when dealing
with the addition of functions. According to this rule, the limit of the sum of two functions,
say f(x) and g(x), as x approaches a particular point 'a', is equal to the sum of their individual
limits at that point. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

This property underscores the fact that limits respect the arithmetic operation of addition,
allowing us to evaluate the limit of a sum by evaluating the limits of the individual functions.

Product Rule: The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their individual
limits.

The Product Rule is a counterpart to the Sum Rule, governing limits involving multiplication
of functions. For two functions f(x) and g(x), the limit of their product as x approaches 'a' is
the product of their individual limits at that point:

𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

This rule highlights that the limit of a product can be found by evaluating the limits of the
individual functions and then multiplying them together.

Difference Rule: The limit of the difference between two functions is the difference of their
individual limits.

The Difference Rule deals with the limit of the difference between two functions. It states
that the limit of the difference between two functions f(x) and g(x) as x approaches 'a' is the
difference of their individual limits:

𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

This rule emphasizes that limits follow the rules of subtraction when applied to functions.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 10

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Quotient Rule: The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their individual
limits, provided the denominator's limit is not zero.

The Quotient Rule pertains to the limit of the quotient of two functions. Given functions f(x)
and g(x), where the limit of g(x) as x approaches 'a' is not equal to zero, the limit of their
quotient as x approaches 'a' is the quotient of their individual limits:

𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) ∕ 𝑔(𝑥)] = (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥)) ∕ (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)), 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

This rule is valid when the denominator's limit is nonzero, ensuring that division by zero is
avoided.

These properties of limits play a crucial role in simplifying limit evaluations, making
calculations more manageable and aiding in the analysis of complex functions by breaking
them down into simpler components.

L'Hôpital's Rule
L'Hôpital's Rule is a powerful tool in calculus that helps evaluate the limits of indeterminate
forms by using derivatives. Indeterminate forms are expressions that do not yield a clear
limit value when directly substituted into a limit. The rule is particularly useful for limits
involving fractions where both the numerator and the denominator approach zero or
infinity. L'Hôpital's Rule states that if the limit of the ratio of the derivatives of the numerator
and denominator exists as x approaches a specific point 'c', then the limit of the original
fraction also exists and is equal to the value of the ratio of the derivatives. Mathematically,
the rule can be stated as follows:

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) ∕ 𝑔(𝑥)]is an indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞, and both,

𝑥→𝑐

𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∕ 𝑔′ (𝑥)] and 𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑔′ (𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

are finite (where f'(x) and g'(x) represent the derivatives of f(x) and g(x)), then:

𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) ∕ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∕ 𝑔′ (𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 11

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

L'Hôpital's Rule provides a systematic method for finding the limit of these indeterminate
forms by simplifying the expression using derivatives, ultimately revealing the limit value.

Example:

Consider the limit:

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ ]
𝑥→0 𝑥

Direct substitution gives an indeterminate form 0/0. Applying L'Hôpital's Rule, we

differentiate the numerator and denominator with respect to 'x': Numerator: Derivative of
sin(x) is cos(x). Denominator: Derivative of x is 1.

So,

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)

𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 1

Here, L'Hôpital's Rule is applied when we have an indeterminate form 0/0. By taking
derivatives of the numerator and denominator, we transform the limit into a form that can
be directly evaluated. In this example, as x approaches 0, the limit of sin(x) / x becomes 1.

Example:
Consider the limit:
𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ ]
𝑥→∞ ⅇ𝑥

Direct substitution gives an indeterminate form ∞/∞. Using L'Hôpital's Rule, we

differentiate the numerator and denominator with respect to 'x': Numerator: Derivative of x
is 1. Denominator: Derivative of e^x is e^x.

So,

𝑥 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑥
] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→∞ ⅇ 𝑥→∞ ⅇ

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 12

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

L'Hôpital's Rule is applied when we encounter an indeterminate form ∞/∞. By taking

derivatives, we simplify the limit to a form that can be computed directly. In this example, as
x approaches infinity, the limit of x / e^x becomes 0.

Squeeze Theorem
The Squeeze Theorem, also known as the Sandwich Theorem, is a fundamental concept in
calculus used to determine the limit of a function by comparing it between two other
functions. This theorem is particularly useful when dealing with functions that oscillate or
fluctuate around a specific point. The Squeeze Theorem is used to establish the limit of a
function within a certain range by "squeezing" it between two other functions whose limits
are known. Mathematically, the Squeeze Theorem can be expressed as follows:

Suppose f(x), g(x), and h(x) are functions such that for all x in an interval containing 'c'
(except possibly at 'c' itself), and f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x).

If

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

then:

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

In other words, if the function g(x) is bounded between two other functions, f(x) and h(x),
whose limits both converge to 'L', then the limit of g(x) as x approaches 'c' is also 'L'.

The Squeeze Theorem is a useful tool for finding the limit of functions that might not be
directly evaluable using basic limit properties. It relies on the concept of function
comparison to deduce the limit value of the function of interest.

Example 1:
Consider the limit: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 ∕ 𝑥)
𝑥→0

Using the Squeeze Theorem, we notice that

1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑥2
𝑥

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 13

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

for all x ≠ 0

Taking the limit as x approaches 0 of these expressions:

𝑙𝑖𝑚(−𝑥 2 ) = 0
𝑥→0

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0

1
Since −𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 and both lower and upper bounds approach 0, by the Squeeze

Theorem, we conclude:

1
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
𝑥→0 𝑥

The Squeeze Theorem is used when we need to determine the limit of a function that's
sandwiched between two other functions with known limits. In this example, as x
1
approaches 0, the function 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 is bounded between −𝑥 2 and 𝑥 2 , both of which tend to 0,
1
leading us to conclude that the limit of 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 is also 0.

Example 2:
1
Consider the limit: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 =
𝑥→0

Using the Squeeze Theorem, we notice that

1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 cos ≤ 𝑥2
𝑥

for all x ≠ 0

Taking the limit as x approaches 0 of these expressions:

𝑙𝑖𝑚(−𝑥 2 ) = 0
𝑥→0

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0

1
Since −𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 cos ≤ 𝑥 2 and both lower and upper bounds approach 0, by the Squeeze
𝑥

Theorem, we conclude:

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 14

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

1
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =0
𝑥→0 𝑥

The Squeeze Theorem is applied to find the limit of a function that is bounded between two
1
known functions. In this case, as x approaches 0, the function 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 is sandwiched between
1
−𝑥 2 and 𝑥 2 , both of which tend to 0, leading us to conclude that the limit of 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 is also 0.

Examples
Example 1

Evaluate the limit as x approaches 2 for the function f(x) = 3x - 1.

Solution

To find the limit, we directly substitute the value of 'a' into the function:

Here a=2,

𝑙𝑖𝑚(3𝑥 − 1) = 3(2) − 1
𝑥→2

=6-1

=5

Example 2
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 0 for the function g(x) = x^2.

Solution
a=0,

Substitute the value of 'a' into the function:

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2
𝑥→0

= 0^2

=0

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 15

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Example 3
𝑥−1
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 1 for the function 𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1

Solution
Factor the denominator and simplify:

𝑥−1
ℎ(𝑥) =
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)

𝑥−1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥+1
𝑥→1

=1/2

Example 4
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 3 for the function k(x) = (√𝑥 + 1) − 2.

Solution
Substitute the value of 'a' into the function:

a=3,

𝑙𝑖𝑚√𝑥 + 1 − 2
𝑥→3

= √3 + 1 − 2

= √4 − 2

=2-2

=0

Example 5
𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 2 for the function g(x) = 𝑥−2

Solution
Factor the numerator and simplify:

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 16

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑔(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 2)

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→2

=2+2

=4

Example 6
𝑥 3 −1
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 1 for the function h(x) = 𝑥 2 −1

Solution
Factor both the numerator and denominator and simplify:

(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1)
h(x) = (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
𝑥→1

= 12 + 1 + 1

=3

Example 7
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 2 for the function f(x) = .
𝑥−2

Solution
Factor the numerator and simplify:

(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 2)

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 17

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 2)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→2

=2+4

=6

Example 8
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 0 for the function g(x) = (sin(x) / x).

Solution
Apply the Squeeze Theorem:

-1 ≤ sin(x) / x ≤ 1

As x approaches 0, both the upper and lower bounds approach 1, so the limit is 1.

Example 9
ⅇ 𝑥 −1
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 0 for the function k(x) = 𝑥

Solution
Apply L'Hôpital's Rule:

ⅇ𝑥 − 1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥

ⅇ𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 1

=1/1

=1

Example 10
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 0 for the function f(x) = (1 - cos(x)) / x.

Solution
Apply L'Hôpital's Rule:

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 18

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 1

=0/1

=0

5. CONTINUITY OF SUM OF TWO CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The continuity of the sum of two continuous functions states that if two functions, f(x) and
g(x), are individually continuous at a point 'a', then their sum,

h(x) = f(x) + g(x)

is also continuous at 'a'. In other words, when you add two continuous functions, the
resulting function remains continuous.

Let's say we have two functions, f(x) and g(x), that are both continuous at a point 'a'. This
means that as x approaches 'a', both f(x) and g(x) approach finite values, and there are no
sudden jumps or breaks in their graphs.

When we consider the sum of these two functions,

h(x) = f(x) + g(x)

we observe that as x approaches 'a', both f(x) and g(x) are approaching finite values. Since
addition is a basic arithmetic operation that preserves continuity, the sum of f(x) and g(x),
represented by h(x), will also approach a finite value as x approaches 'a'. This ensures that
there are no sudden discontinuities or jumps in the graph of h(x) at the point 'a'. Therefore,

h(x) = f(x) + g(x) is continuous at 'a'.

Example:
Suppose we have two continuous functions, f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 - 1. Let's determine
if their sum, h(x) = f(x) + g(x), is continuous at a point 'a' where a = 2.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 19

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Both f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 𝑥 2 - 1 are polynomial functions, and polynomial functions are
continuous everywhere. Therefore, both functions are individually continuous at any point
'a', including a = 2.

Now, let's consider their sum,

h(x) = f(x) + g(x): h(x)

= (2x + 3) + (𝑥 2 - 1)

= 𝑥 2 + 2x + 2

Since both f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a = 2, their sum,

h(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2x + 2 is also continuous at a = 2.

This means that as x approaches 2, the value of h(x) approaches

22 + 2 * 2 + 2 = 10

There are no sudden jumps or breaks in the graph of h(x) at x = 2.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 20

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

6. CONTINUITY OF PRODUCT OF TWO CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The continuity of the product of two continuous functions states that if two functions, f(x)
and g(x), are individually continuous at a point 'a', then their product,
h(x) = f(x) * g(x)

is also continuous at 'a'. In other words, when you multiply two continuous functions, the
resulting function remains continuous.

Explanation: Assuming that both f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point 'a', this implies that
as x approaches 'a', both functions approach finite values and there are no sudden breaks or
gaps in their graphs.

Considering the product of these two functions,

h(x) = f(x) * g(x),

we can examine the behaviour as x approaches 'a'. Since multiplication is another basic
arithmetic operation that preserves continuity, the product of f(x) and g(x), represented by
h(x), will also approach a finite value as x approaches 'a'. This means that there are no abrupt
changes or disruptions in the graph of h(x) at the point 'a'. Consequently,
h(x) = f(x) * g(x) is continuous at 'a'.

Example:
Consider two continuous functions, f(x) = sin(x) and g(x) = e^x, where 'x' is in the interval [0,
π/2]. Let's investigate the continuity of their product,
h(x) = f(x) * g(x).

Both f(x) = sin(x) and g(x) = e^x are continuous functions in their respective domains. The
sine function and the exponential function are known to be continuous everywhere. Since
the interval [0, π/2] lies within the domain of both functions, they are continuous in this
interval.

Now, let's examine their product, h(x) = f(x) * g(x): h(x) = sin(x) * ⅇ 𝑥

Because both f(x) and g(x) are continuous in the interval [0, π/2], their product h(x) = sin(x)
* ⅇ 𝑥 is also continuous in this interval. This implies that as x approaches any value within [0,

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 21

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

π/2], the product h(x) = sin(x) * e^x approaches a finite value, and there are no abrupt
changes or disruptions in the graph of h(x) within this interval. Thus, the product of two
continuous functions remains continuous within the interval [0, π/2].

7. CONTINUITY OF DIFFERENCE OF TWO CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The continuity of the difference of two continuous functions states that if two functions, f(x)
and g(x), are individually continuous at a point 'a', then their difference,
h(x) = f(x) - g(x)

is also continuous at 'a'. In other words, when you subtract two continuous functions, the
resulting function remains continuous.

Explanation: If both f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a particular point 'a', it means that as x
approaches 'a', both functions approach finite values, and there are no sudden jumps or
breaks in their graphs.

When we consider the difference of these two functions, h(x) = f(x) - g(x), we analyse how
the function behaves as x approaches 'a'. Subtraction is a fundamental arithmetic operation
that maintains continuity, so the difference of f(x) and g(x), represented by h(x), will also
approach a finite value as x approaches 'a'. This indicates that there are no abrupt
discontinuities or gaps in the graph of h(x) at the point 'a'.

Therefore,
h(x) = f(x) - g(x) is continuous at 'a'.

Consider two continuous functions,

f(x) = 3𝑥 2 - 2x and g(x) = 𝑥 2 + 5x.

Let's analyse the continuity of their difference,

h(x) = f(x) - g(x), at the point 'a' where a = 2.

Both f(x) = 3x^2 - 2x and g(x) = x^2 + 5x are polynomial functions, which are known to be
continuous everywhere. This means that they are individually continuous at any point 'a',
including a = 2.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 22

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Now, let's examine their difference,

h(x) = f(x) - g(x): h(x) = (3𝑥 2 - 2x) - (𝑥 2 + 5x) = 2𝑥 2 - 7x

Since both f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a = 2, their difference

h(x) = 2𝑥 2 - 7x

is also continuous at a = 2. As x approaches 2, the value of h(x) approaches

2 ∗ 22 - 7 * 2 = -6.

There are no sudden disruptions or gaps in the graph of h(x) around x = 2.

8. CONTINUITY OF QUOTIENT OF TWO CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The continuity of the quotient of two continuous functions states that if two functions, f(x)
and g(x), are individually continuous at a point 'a', and g(a) ≠ 0, then their quotient,
h(x) = f(x) / g(x)

is also continuous at 'a'. In other words, when you divide two continuous functions, the
resulting function remains continuous if the denominator is not zero at 'a'.

Explanation: Assuming both f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a specific point 'a', and further
assuming that g(a) ≠ 0 (denominator is not zero at 'a'), this implies that as x approaches 'a',
both functions approach finite values, and there are no sudden gaps or breaks in their graphs.

When we consider the quotient of these two functions,

h(x) = f(x) / g(x)

we examine how the function behaves as x approaches 'a'. Division is another basic
arithmetic operation that maintains continuity, but there's an additional requirement: the
denominator must not be zero at 'a'. As long as g(a) ≠ 0, the quotient of f(x) and g(x),
represented by h(x), will approach a finite value as x approaches 'a'. This guarantees that
there are no abrupt discontinuities or gaps in the graph of,

h(x) = f(x) / g(x) is continuous at 'a' when g(a) ≠ 0.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 23

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Example:
Let's examine the continuity of the quotient of two continuous functions. Consider
f(x) = 1/x and g(x) = x - 2.

We will investigate the continuity of their quotient,

h(x) = f(x) / g(x),

for values of 'x' where the denominator g(x) ≠ 0.

The function f(x) = 1/x is continuous for all x ≠ 0, and the function g(x) = x - 2 is continuous
for all real values of x. We need to ensure that the denominator g(x) ≠ 0, which means x ≠ 2
to avoid division by zero.

Now, let's analyse their quotient,

h(x) = f(x) / g(x): h(x) = (1/x) / (x - 2) = 1 / (x(x - 2))

Since both f(x) and g(x) are continuous where they are defined and the denominator x(x - 2)
is nonzero in the interval (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞), the quotient h(x) = 1 / (x(x - 2)) is also
continuous in these intervals. This means that as x approaches any value within the specified
intervals, the value of h(x) remains well-defined and continuous. However, h(x) has a vertical
asymptote at x = 0 and a removable discontinuity at x = 2, where the denominator becomes
zero.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 24

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

9. SUMMARY
In this unit, we kicked things off with composite functions, this fascinating concept where we
take the output of one function and feed it as the input to another. It's like a relay race in
mathematics, where the baton is passed from one function to the next, creating a chain of
operations that result in a new, composite function. This concept is not just mathematically
elegant but also mirrors processes in computer programming, where functions often work
in tandem, passing results along to build up complex operations.

Then, we danced through the operations on functions – sum, difference, product, and
quotient. Each operation added a new layer to our understanding, much like adding
ingredients to a recipe changes the flavour of a dish. These operations allow us to combine
functions in various ways, crafting new functions that can describe a wide range of
phenomena, from the trajectories of planets to the fluctuations in stock markets.

Our foray into periodic functions introduced us to the rhythms of mathematics, where
certain functions repeat their values in regular intervals, much like the cycles of seasons or
the ticking of a clock. This concept helps us grasp phenomena that recur over time, providing
a framework for predicting future behaviour based on past patterns.

Diving into the world of even and odd functions added another dimension to our
understanding, showing us how functions can mirror or rotate around axes, revealing
symmetrical patterns akin to reflections in water or shadows cast by the sun.

As we transitioned into the concepts of limits and continuity, we ventured closer to the heart
of calculus. Limits allowed us to probe the behaviour of functions as they approach specific
points, offering insights into how functions behave under constrained conditions. This is
crucial for understanding how algorithms perform, especially as they near boundary
conditions.

Continuity ensured that our functions behaved nicely, without any unexpected jumps or
breaks. This seamless behaviour is essential in programming, where we expect algorithms
to execute smoothly, without any surprises.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 25

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

In wrapping up this unit, it's clear that the journey through composite functions, operations,
limits, and continuity isn't just a mathematical excursion. It's a foundational toolkit for
anyone delving into the world of computer applications. These concepts equip us with the
ability to predict, model, and analyse the intricate behaviours of algorithms and systems,
ensuring we can navigate the complexities of the digital world with confidence and precision.

10. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS – 1

1. What does the limit of a function represent as the input approaches a

particular point?
a) The value of the function at that point
b) The maximum value of the function
c) The value the function approaches as the input gets closer to the point
d) The minimum value of the function
2. In the context of calculus, what does the concept of limit characterize?
a) The absolute maximum value of a function
b) The behavior of a function as its input values converge towards a point
c) The point where a function has its minimum value
d) The average value of a function over an interval
3. Which mathematical notation is used to represent the limit of a function as it
approaches a specific point 'a'?
a) lim(x→a) f(x)
b) f(a) = lim(x→0) f(x)
c) lim(f(x)) = a
d) f(a) = x→a

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 26

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

4. When is a function said to be continuous at a point 'a'?

a) When the function has a sharp corner at 'a'
b) When the function's value at 'a' is undefined
c) When the limit of the function at 'a' does not exist
d) When the limit of the function at 'a' exists and equals the value of the
function at 'a'
5. What does continuity of a function guarantee about its behaviour at a specific
point?
a) There are abrupt changes in the graph of the function
b) The function's values experience sudden alterations
c) The function's values transition smoothly and without breaks
d) The function's values diverge as the input approaches the point
6. What does the ε-δ definition of limits provide a formal way to express?
a) The concept of differentiation
b) The behaviour of a function at infinity
c) The concept of limit in calculus
d) The behaviour of a function at critical points
7. According to the ε-δ definition of limits, for a given function f(x) and point 'a',
what is the condition for the limit to be 'L' as x approaches 'a'?
a) For every positive ε, there exists a positive δ such that |x - a| < δ implies
|f(x) - L| < ε.
b) For every positive δ, there exists a positive ε such that |x - a| < δ implies
|f(x) - L| < ε.
c) For every positive ε, there exists a positive δ such that |f(x) - L| < ε implies
|x - a| < δ.
d) For every positive δ, there exists a positive ε such that |f(x) - L| < δ
implies |x - a| < ε.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 27

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

8. What does the Sum Rule state in the context of limits of functions?
a) The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their individual
limits.
b) The limit of the difference between two functions is the difference of
their individual limits.
c) The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their individual limits.
d) The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their
individual limits.
9. According to the Product Rule, what is the limit of the product of two
functions f(x) and g(x) as x approaches 'a'?
a) The product of their individual limits at 'a'.
b) The sum of their individual limits at 'a'.
c) The difference of their individual limits at 'a'.
d) The quotient of their individual limits at 'a'.
10. What does the Quotient Rule for limits state?
a) The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their individual
limits.
b) The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their individual limits.
c) The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their
individual limits, regardless of the denominator.
d) The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their
individual limits, provided the denominator's limit is not zero.
11. What is the primary purpose of L'Hôpital's Rule in calculus?
a) To find the derivative of a given function.
b) To simplify limits involving indeterminate forms using derivatives.
c) To calculate the integral of a function.
d) To determine the continuity of a function.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 28

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

12. When can L'Hôpital's Rule be applied to evaluate a limit?

a) Whenever the limit involves fractions.
b) When both the numerator and denominator approach zero or infinity,
and the derivatives of both exist.
c) Only for limits at positive infinity.
d) Only for limits at negative infinity.
13. What does the Squeeze Theorem, or the Sandwich Theorem, help determine
in calculus?
a) The value of a definite integral.
b) The limit of a function by comparing it between two other functions.
c) The derivative of a function.
d) The local maximum and minimum of a function.
14. What does the continuity of the sum of two continuous functions state?
a) The sum of two continuous functions is always discontinuous.
b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their sum is also
continuous at that point.
c) If two functions are individually discontinuous, their sum is continuous
at that point.
d) The sum of two continuous functions is only continuous at the origin.
15. Why is the sum of two continuous functions continuous at a point 'a'?
a) Because addition is a basic arithmetic operation.
b) Because both functions have a limit at 'a'.
c) Because it ensures there are sudden jumps in the graph.
d) Because it only works for specific values of 'a'.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 29

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

16. What does the continuity of the product of two continuous functions state?
a) The product of two continuous functions is always discontinuous.
b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their product is
also continuous at that point.
c) If two functions are individually discontinuous, their product is
continuous at that point.
d) The product of two continuous functions is only continuous at the origin.
17. Why is the product of two continuous functions continuous at a point 'a'?
a) Because multiplication is a basic arithmetic operation.
b) Because both functions have a limit at 'a'.
c) Because it ensures there are sudden breaks in the graph.
d) Because it only works for specific values of 'a'.
18. What does the continuity of the difference of two continuous functions state?
a) The difference of two continuous functions is always discontinuous.
b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their difference is
also continuous at that point.
c) If two functions are individually discontinuous, their difference is
continuous at that point.
d) The difference of two continuous functions is only continuous at the
origin.
19. Why is the difference of two continuous functions continuous at a point 'a'?
a) Because subtraction is a basic arithmetic operation.
b) Because both functions have a limit at 'a'.
c) Because it ensures there are sudden breaks in the graph.
d) Because it only works for specific values of 'a'.
20. What condition must be satisfied for the quotient of two continuous
functions to be continuous at a point 'a'?
a) Both functions must be discontinuous at 'a'.
b) The numerator must be zero at 'a'.
c) The denominator must be zero at 'a'.
d) The denominator must not be zero at 'a'.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 30

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

11. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Define what it means for a function to be continuous at a specific point 'a'. Provide an
example to illustrate continuity.
2. Explain the significance of continuity in mathematics and provide an example of how
it's used in a real-world application.
3. State the First Principle of Limits (ε-δ definition) and explain its significance in
understanding limits.
4. Discuss the properties of continuous functions, including the continuity of sums,
products, differences, and quotients of continuous functions. Provide examples to
illustrate each property.
5. Given the functions f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x^2 - 4, determine whether their sum,
product, difference, and quotient (where defined) are continuous functions. Provide
explanations.
6. Apply the Squeeze Theorem to find the limit as x approaches 0 of the function g(x) =
x^2 * sin(1/x). Show all necessary steps and justify your answer.
7. Solve the limit as x approaches 2 of the function f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2). Justify your
answer.
8. Determine whether the function f(x) = sqrt(x) is continuous at x = 4. Explain your
reasoning.
9. Use the properties of continuity to determine whether the function h(x) = e^x * sin(x)
is continuous for all real numbers. Provide a proof.
10. Prove or disprove the following statement: "The difference of two continuous functions
is always continuous."

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 31

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

12. ANSWERS
Self-assessment answers
1. c) The value the function approaches as the input gets closer to the point
2. b) The behaviour of a function as its input values converge towards a point
3. a) lim(x→a) f(x)
4. d) When the limit of the function at 'a' exists and equals the value of the function at 'a'
5. c) The function's values transition smoothly and without breaks
6. c) The concept of limit in calculus
7. a) For every positive ε, there exists a positive δ such that |x - a| < δ implies |f(x) - L| < ε.
8. c) The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their individual limits.
9. a) The product of their individual limits at 'a'.
10. d) The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their individual limits,
provided the denominator's limit is not zero.
11. b) To simplify limits involving indeterminate forms using derivatives.
12. b) When both the numerator and denominator approach zero or infinity, and the
derivatives of both exist.
13. b) The limit of a function by comparing it between two other functions.
14. b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their sum is also continuous
at that point.
15. a) Because addition is a basic arithmetic operation that preserves continuity.
16. b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their product is also
continuous at that point.
17. a) Because multiplication is a basic arithmetic operation that preserves continuity.
18. b) If two functions are individually continuous at a point, their difference is also
continuous at that point.
19. a) Because subtraction is a fundamental arithmetic operation that maintains continuity.
20. d) The denominator must not be zero at 'a'.

Terminal Answers
1. A function f(x) is continuous at a point 'a' if the following three conditions are met:

f(a) is defined (i.e., the function has a value at 'a').

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 32

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

The limit of the function as x approaches 'a' exists.

The limit as x approaches 'a' is equal to the value of the function at 'a': lim(x→a) f(x) =
f(a).

Example: Consider the function f(x) = 2x + 3. This function is continuous at any point 'a'
because it satisfies all three conditions. For instance, it is continuous at 'a = 1' because
f(1) = 5, 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 5, and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = f(1).
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

2. Continuity is a crucial concept in mathematics because it ensures that functions behave

predictably and smoothly. In real-world applications, continuity is essential in areas like
physics, engineering, and economics. For instance, in physics, the continuous motion of
an object can be described by continuous functions. In engineering, continuous functions
are used to model behaviours such as stress in materials. In economics, continuous
functions are used to model demand and supply curves, ensuring that transitions are
smooth and not abrupt.
3. The First Principle of Limits states that for a function f(x), the limit as x approaches a
point 'a' is 'L' if, for any positive ε (epsilon), there exists a positive δ (delta) such that if
the distance between x and a (|x - a|) is less than δ, then the distance between f(x) and L
(|f(x) - L|) is less than ε. This principle is significant because it provides a rigorous and
precise definition of limits, allowing us to understand how a function behaves as it
approaches a specific point.
4. Sum Rule: The sum of two continuous functions is continuous. For example, if f(x) = 𝑥 2
and g(x) = 2x, both are continuous, and their sum h(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2x is also continuous.
Product Rule: The product of two continuous functions is continuous. If f(x) = sin(x)
and g(x) = cos(x), both are continuous, and their product h(x) = sin(x) * cos(x) is
continuous.
Difference Rule: The difference of two continuous functions is continuous. For example,
if f(x) = 3x and g(x) = 𝑥 2 , both are continuous, and their difference h(x) = 3x - 𝑥 2 is
continuous.
Quotient Rule: The quotient of two continuous functions is continuous where the
denominator is not zero. If f(x) = 1/x and g(x) = x, both are continuous, and their quotient
h(x) = (1/x) / x = 1/𝑥 2 is continuous where x ≠ 0.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 33

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

5. Sum: The sum h(x) = f(x) + g(x) = (2x + 1) + (3𝑥 2 - 4) is continuous because it's the sum
of two continuous functions.
Product: The product h(x) = f(x) * g(x) = (2x + 1)(3𝑥 2 - 4) is continuous because it's the
product of two continuous functions.
Difference: The difference h(x) = f(x) - g(x) = (2x + 1) - (3𝑥 2 - 4) is continuous because
it's the difference of two continuous functions.
Quotient: The quotient h(x) = f(x) / g(x) = (2x + 1) / (3𝑥 2 - 4) is continuous where g(x)
≠ 0. To check where it's defined, set the denominator equal to zero and solve: 3𝑥 2 - 4 = 0
→ x = ±2/√3. Therefore, h(x) is continuous except at x = 2/√3 and x = -2/√3.
6. To apply the Squeeze Theorem, we need to find two functions, f(x) and h(x), such that:
f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in a neighbourhood of 0.
The limits of f(x) and h(x) as x approaches 0 are equal and finite.
Let's choose f(x) = −𝑥 2 and h(x) = 𝑥 2 .
For f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x):
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 * sin(1/x) ≤ 𝑥 2 for all x ≠ 0.
Now, let's find the limits of f(x) and h(x):
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 − 𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Since both limits of f(x) and h(x) are equal and finite, by the Squeeze Theorem,
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→0

7. To solve this limit, we can attempt direct substitution. However, if we substitute x = 2

directly, we get 0/0, which is an indeterminate form. Therefore, we can apply L'Hôpital's
Rule.
Find the derivatives of the numerator and denominator:
f'(x) = d/dx (𝑥 2 - 4) = 2x
g'(x) = d/dx (x - 2) = 1
Apply L'Hôpital's Rule:
𝑥2 − 4 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 2𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ′ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑥→2 1

Now, we can directly substitute x = 2:

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 34

Fundamentals of Mathematics Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

2𝑥 2(2)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =4
𝑥→2 1 1
𝑥 2 −4
So, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =4
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

8. To determine if the function f(x) = sqrt(x) is continuous at x = 4, we need to check the

three conditions for continuity:
f(4) is defined: f(4) = √4= 2, so f(4) is defined.
The limit of f(x) as x approaches 4 exists: 𝑙𝑖𝑚√𝑥also equals 2.
𝑥→4

f(4) equals the limit: f(4) = 2, which matches the limit.

Since all three conditions are met, f(x) = √𝑥is continuous at x = 4.
9. To determine the continuity of h(x) = ⅇ 𝑥 * sin(x) for all real numbers, we need to show
that it's continuous everywhere. ⅇ 𝑥 is a continuous function for all real numbers.
sin(x) is also a continuous function for all real numbers.
Since both ⅇ 𝑥 and sin(x) are continuous everywhere, the product of two continuous
functions, h(x) = ⅇ 𝑥 * sin(x), is continuous for all real numbers. This is because the
properties of continuity state that the product of continuous functions is continuous.
10. The statement is true. Let's prove it:
Suppose we have two continuous functions, f(x) and g(x). We want to show that their
difference, h(x) = f(x) - g(x), is also continuous. To prove this, we can use the properties
of continuous functions:
Both f(x) and g(x) are continuous by definition.
The sum of two continuous functions is continuous (as shown previously).
Multiplication of a continuous function by a constant is continuous.
Now, we can express h(x) as a sum: h(x) = f(x) + (-1) * g(x).
Since addition and multiplication by a constant preserve continuity, both f(x) and -g(x)
are continuous. Therefore, their sum, h(x), is continuous.
So, the difference of two continuous functions is indeed always continuous.

Unit 3: Limit and Continuity 35