INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
IBADAN
PHYSICS
EXTRA CLASS NOTE
SECOND TERM
JANUARY 2023
SS 2

1. Laser 2-4
2. Heisenberg uncertainty principle 5-6
3. Wave-particle duality of matter 7-8
4. Satellite 9-15

LASER

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The laser is a light source that produces a beam of highly coherent and very nearly
monochromatic light as a result of co-operative emission from many atoms .It is a device that
generates an intense beam of coherent monochromatic light. The name Laser is an acronym for
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Types of laser
1. solid state [Link]-conductor
2. chemical [Link]
3. Liquid state 6. Gas state

Bohr Atomic theory states that:

i. Electrons in an atom exist in stationary states or energy level.
ii. Transmission between stationary states produces/absorb electromagnetic radiation. When
an electron moves between stationary states, it is accompanied by the emission or
absorption of a photon. This photon’s energy is given by E = hf
Electromagnetic radiation is produced by the movement of electrons from higher energy
level to lower energy level. The angular momentum of a stationary electron is quantized.

Spontaneous Emission: Atoms must absorb energy either from an electromagnetic source,
photon or heat source in order to jump to higher energy levels. When this occurs, the atom is said
to be excited. This electron however will not remain in the higher state for long and so on loses
its energy by radiating the same amount of energy it absorbed and returns to the ground state.

Stimulated Emission: If before the electron returns to ground state, a photon whose energy =
E happens to pass by, the passing photon will cause the excited electron to decay in a manner
that the photon emitted is at exactly the same wavelength, at exactly the same direction and at
exactly the same phase as the passing photon. When two coherent photons are emitted by the
interaction of the single photon passing in the neighbourhood of the excited electrons. The two
photons interact with two neighbouring excited atoms, thereby producing four photons, four
producing eight photons and so on i.e. there is amplification leading to a very intense beam of
light termed LASER BEAM

Population inversion: is the process of increasing the number of atoms in the excited state in
relation to the number in ground state. It is achieved by pumping electrons by some external
process from the lower state to higher state. Electrons will normally reside in the lowest available
energy level. They can be elevated to excited states by absorption, but no signification collection
of electrons can be accumulated by absorption alone since both spontaneous and stimulated
emission will bring them back. It enables the existence of many atoms in the excited state from
where they can be stimulated to emit greater energy.

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Resonator: is a system of mirrors that reflect undesirable photon out of the beam and reflect the
desirable photons back to the excited population where they can continue to be part of the
amplification.
Components of a Laser
1. Pumping medium
2. High voltage source
3. A fully reflecting mirror or surface
4. Laser cavity
5. A partially reflecting surface

Characteristics of laser light

1. Laser light is highly coherent: Different parts of the laser beam are related to each other in
phase. These phase relationships are maintained over long enough time so that interference
effects may be seen or recorded photographically.
2. Laser light is highly monochromatic: Laser light consists of essentially one wavelength having
its origin in stimulated emission from a set of atomic energy levels.
3. Laser light can be sharply focused: Because of bouncing back between mirrored ends of a
laser cavity, those paths which sustain amplification must pass between the mirrors many times
and be very nearly perpendicular to the mirrors. As a result, laser beams are very narrow and do
not spread very much.
4. Tuning: Some lasers can be used to emit radiation over a range of wavelengths. Laser
tenability leads to applications in photochemistry, high resolution and roman spectroscopy.
5. Brightness: Laser lights have a higher brightness than any other source. We define brightness
as the power emitted per unit area per unit solid angle.
Application of laser
1. In Communication
 For hologram production
 For CD, VCD, DVD playing
 For data transfer
 Used in fibre optical cable
2. In medicine
For welding the retina of our eyes
 For boring holes in the skull
 For testing biological samples
 For monitoring glucose level for diabetic patient
 For cauterizating blood vessels
 Used in dentistry

3. In security
 Used in guidance system of missiles

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  Used in aircraft and satellite
 Used in generation of isotopes for nuclear weapons

Differences and similarities between ordinary light and laser light

Ordinary light Laser light
1 Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
2 Light is incoherent (photons Light is coherent (photons emitted are in phase)
emitted are out of phase)
3 Divergent Highly directional (focused to a sharp point)
4 Polychromatic (different frequency, Light is monochromatic (single colour, frequency
wavelength and colours) and wavelength)

Similarities
1. Both are electromagnetic waves
2. Both travel with the speed of 3 x 108m/s in air or vacuum.

Properties of lasers that make them preferable to ordinary light beam

1. It is monochromatic
2. It gives more intense light
3. It can be emitted continuously
4. It has a very long narrow optical bandwidth
5. It travels a very long distance without losing its intensity

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Considering a blindfolded person in the room searching for a ball whose velocity he has been
told to be 5ms-1 but not know the position.

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He will come to know the position when the ball collides with him but at this point of time the
velocity of the ball would have changed due to the collision. This is precisely what Heisenberg
stated that exact velocity and exact position cannot be determined simultaneously.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that there is always an uncertainty in any attempt to
measure the position and momentum of an electron simultaneously
Mathematically
h
x . P 
2π
h
x . V 
2π
h
E . t 
2π
x is the uncertainty in the position measurement
P is the uncertainty in the momentum measurement
V is the uncertainty in the velocity measurement
E is the uncertainty in the energy measurement
t is the uncertainty in the time measurement
h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34Js

Worked Examples
1. The uncertainty in determining the duration during which an electron remain in a
particular energy level before returning to the ground state is 2 x 10 -19secs. Calculate the
uncertainty in determining its energy at that level.
h
E . t 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
E . 2 x 10-19 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
E  −19
2 x 3.142 x 2 x 10
= 5.25 x 10-26 J

2. The uncertainty in the velocity of a moving electron of mass 10 -30kg is 3 x 106m/s.

Calculate the uncertainty of the simultaneous measurement of its position.
h
x . P 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
x . MV 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
x . 10-30 x 3 x 10-6 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
x = −30 6
2 x 3.142 x 10 x 3 x 10
x = 3.52 x 10 m -11

3. Suppose the uncertainty of position of an electron is about 0.5 x 10 -10m, calculate the
uncertainty in its momentum

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 h
x . P 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
0.5 x 10-10 x P 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
P  −10
2 x 3.142 x 0.5 x 10
P = 2.11 x 10-24kgm/s

4. The uncertainty in the momentum of an electron is 2.10 x 10 24kgm/s. What is the least
uncertainty in any simultaneous measurement of the position of this election?

h
E . P 
2π
−34 −34
6.6 x 10 6.6 x 10
E . 2.10 x 10-24  E  −24 === 5.02 x 10
-
2 x 3.142 2 x 3.142 x 2.10 x 10
1J

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 Wave –particle duality of matter
Wave-particle duality of matter means light behaves or propagates either as a wave or as a
particle but not as both simultaneously.
Properties or physical phenomena that explain light as a wave
(1) Reflection (4) Interference
(2) Refraction (5) Wavelength
(3) Diffraction (6) Frequency
Properties or physical phenomena that explain light as a particle
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect
3. Black body radiation
4. Geiger counter

Louis de Broglie postulate states that every particle of mass moving with velocity v can be
treated as a wave having a wavelength  given as
h h
= = since P = mv
mv p
The wavelength  is sometimes called de Broglie wavelength
The following formula can be used to calculate wavelength
h h
1. = =
p mv
hv
2. =
2 eV
h
3. =
√2 eVme
Where h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 x 10-34Js
p = mv = momentum (kgm/s)
me = mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31kg
v = velocity
V = voltage
e = electron = 1.6 x 10-19J

Worked Examples

1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for

a. a proton of mass 1.67 x 10-27kg moving with a speed of 4 x 105m/s
b. a ball of mass 80g moving with a speed of 25m/s
−34
h 6.6 x 10
a.  = =
mv 1.67 x 10−27 x 4 x 105

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 = 9.88 x 10-13m
−34
h 6.6 x 10
b. = =
mv 8 x 10−2 x 25
= 3.3 x 10-34m

2. Calculate the minimum wavelength of x-ray when a voltage of 60kV is applied to an x-

ray tube (e = 1.6 x 10-19C)
−34 8
hv 6.6 x 10 x 3.0 x 10
= =
2 eV 2 x 1.6 x 10−19 x 6 .0 x 10 4
= 1.03 x 10-11m

3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron of mass 9.1 x 10 -31kg moving with a velocity of
2.0 x 106m/s
−34
hv 6.6 x 10
= =
meV 9.1 x 10−34 x 2 .0 x 106
= 3.64 x 10-10m
4. If electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 10kV, what is the
wavelength?
−34
hv 6.6 x 10
= =
√2 eVMe √2 x 1.6 x 10−19 x 1 x 104 x 9.1 x 10−3
 = 1.22 x 10-11m

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 Satellite
Satellite is defined as an object that goes around or orbits, a larger object, such as a planet,
capable of exerting a gravitational force.

Advantages of Satellites
1. Used in long distance communication such as T.V., fax, internet
2. Collecting information about other planets, stars
3. Used in T.V. and radio broadcasting.
4. Weather forecasting i.e. prediction of rainfall, storm.
5. Agricultural monitoring i.e. crop diseases, crop failure

Geostationary (artificial) satellite is a satellite whose period of revolution is equal to the period of
rotation of the earth. It can also be defined as a satellite whose period of revolution is equal to
24hours or one day.

Parking Orbits A satellite is said to be in a parking orbits if its period is exactly equal to the period
of the earth as it turns its own orbit which is about 24 hours.

A satellite has been classified as

Natural and artificial satellite

Natural satellites Artificial satellite

1 They are formed by nature They are man-made

2 They are not controlled by humans They are controlled by human;

3 Permanent Temporary

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 4 Not used for communication They can communicate with instruments
on earth

Components of an artificial satellite

Components Function

- Power/solar power Generates electricity

- Star tracker Aligns satellite

- Gyroscope Aligns satellite in the right directions

- Infrared Sends out signals

- Camera Captures images

Examples of artificial satellite are GOES, ANIK,GPS, TERRIER,MILSTAR, ISS,

skylab,Explorer and sputnik

Messages sent to the satellite from a ground station are UPLINKED, messages transmitted from
the satellites to earth are DOWNLINKED.

Rocket

A rocket is an engine or instrument that expels gas in one direction to move in the other
direction. It produces a great power, more power for its size than any other kind of engine. It is a
long circular device that is launched into the air.

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 Components and functions of a rocket
 The body tube: this is a hollow cylinder to which all the other parts are attached
 The launch lug: this is a narrow tube fastened to the side of the body tube. The launch lug
guides the rocket and keeps it vertical during lift off.
 The fins: these are attached to the bottom part of the body tube just as fins attach to a fish.
They help the rockets to travel straight during flight.
 The engine holder or engine mount is a ring cemented inside the bottom of the body tube of
the rocket. It is constructed in such a way that the rocket engine fits into the engine holder.
 The rocket engine is usually in the form of a tube and contains the solid fuel or propellant.
 The nose cone forms the top of a model rocket. Its tip has a rounded point that reduces the air
resistance. It is in the Nose Cone that the astronauts and the payload stay during space travel.
The payload is the equipment carried by a spacecraft or rocket. It can be satellite or other
research equipment.
 The recovery device is wired to return the rocket slowly to the ground after it has reached its
highest point or maximum altitude called apogee. One such device is a parachute behind the
nose cone.
 The launch system: this consists of a launch pad and an engine ignition system with a battery.

Multistage Rocket
A rocket traveling to space requires more than one engine. The reason is because it will require
much larger amounts of fuel or propellant to gain the speed required to escape the Earth’s
gravity; and this is not economically favourable. A multistage rocket can reach higher speed
because it lightens its weight by dropping stages as it used up fuel or propellant. A system of two
or more rocket engines is called a multistage rocket.
A multistage rocket is defined as a rocket having two or more engines stacked one on top of
another and firing in succession. Normally, each unit, or stage, is jettisoned after completing its
firing.
Component parts of a \multistage Rocket
A multistage rocket consists of two or more sections called stages. Each stage has a rocket
engine and propellant.
The first rocket engine “first stage rocket” or booster launches the rocket. After the propellant of
this stage is used up, burnt or exhausted, the vehicle drops that section and uses the second stage,
and the process repeats itself, after which the third stage rocket comes into operation.

Launching a Multistage Rocket

The rocket is launched or sent off into space from a launch pad located at a special site called
launch sites.

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The rockets are prepared for launching in a step by step process called the countdown. Each step
is scheduled for a specific time during the countdown and the rocket is launched when the
countdown reaches “zero”. A hold may, however, occur at any stage if the weather conditions
are not conducive for launching the rocket.
The first stage fires to push the rocket to a considerable height after which the engine is
disconnected and let down by means of parachutes or allowed to fall into the ocean at a
predetermined position and is recovered for reuse. This makes the rocket lighter. The second
stage starts firing when the first stage is disconnected (or jettisoned). This increases the speed of
the rocket. When the fuel in the second stage finishes, it is jettisoned and may not be recovered
like the first stage. This is because, by now the rocket must have been very close to target orbit.
At this point, the third stage fires the rocket into the target orbit.

Functions of Rockets
Some of the functions of rockets are as follows:
 Rocket carries astronauts to space to study the environment and the moon.
 Rocket caries robotic probes (i.e. specialized equipment) to study other planets.
 Rocket carries artificial satellites such as weather satellites, earth satellites, communication
satellites, scientific and astronomical satellites.
 With rockets, portable laboratories can be carried into space to carry out some scientific
researches which are impossible on earth’s surface.
 It is hoped that in the future, man will have colonies or cities in space; and rocket powered
vehicles will be used to shuttle between these cities.
 With appropriate design, rocket engine can serve as a vehicle for carrying a bomb to explode
in an enemy’s territory. Such a rocket- bomb structure moves in the form of a missile.

Rocket propulsion
A rocket in its simplest form is a chamber enclosing a gas under pressure. A small opening at
one end of the chamber allows the gas to escape, and in doing so provides a thrust that propels
the rocket in the opposite direction. A good example of this is a balloon. The air inside a balloon
is compressed by the balloon's rubber walls. The air pushes back so that the forces on each side
are balanced. When the nozzle is released, air escapes through it and the balloon is propelled in
the opposite direction.

 With space rockets, the gas is produced by burning propellants that can be solid or liquid in
form or a combination of the two. The word propellant does not mean simply fuel, as you
might think; it means both fuel and oxidizer. The fuel is the chemical rockets burn, but for
burning to take place, an oxidizer (oxygen) must be present.
 Jet engines draw oxygen into their engines from the surrounding air. Rockets do not have the
luxury that jet planes have; they must carry oxygen with them into space, where there is no air.
 Solid rocket propellants, which are dry to the touch, contain both the fuel and oxidizer
combined together in the chemical itself. Usually the fuel is a mixture of hydrogen compounds

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 and carbon and the oxidizer is made up of oxygen compounds. Liquid propellants, which are
often gases that have been chilled until they condense into liquids, are kept in separate
containers: one for the fuel and the other for the oxidizer.
 Then, when the engine fires, the fuel and oxidizer are mixed together in the engine; the fuel of
a liquid-propellant rocket is usually kerosene or liquid hydrogen; the oxidizer is usually liquid
oxygen. They are combined inside a cavity called the combustion chamber. Here the
propellants burn and build up high temperatures and pressures, and the expanding gas escapes
through the nozzle at the lower end.
 To get the most power from the propellants, they must be mixed as completely as possible.
Small injectors (nozzles) on the roof of the chamber spray and mix the propellants at the
same time. Because the chamber operates under high pressures, the propellants need to be
forced inside.
 Powerful, lightweight turbine pumps between the propellant tanks and combustion chambers
take care of this job.
 With any rocket, and especially with liquid-propellant rockets, weight is an important factor. In
general, the heavier the rocket, the more the thrust needed to get it off the ground. Because of
the pumps and fuel lines, liquid engines are much heavier than solid engines.
 The force produced by a large mass of burning fuel accelerates the rocket through space. This
is possible as fuel and liquid oxygen make up over 90% of the mass of a rocket.

:R

Difference between Rocket and Artificial Satellites

Rocket Artificial satellites

1 It is a vehicle/device designed for stravel It is an object that orbits the earth, the
outside the earth’s atmosphere moon or another celestial body

2 It has propulsion ability i.e. ability to travel It does not have propulsion ability
on its own

3 Not necessarily in orbits around something Always in orbits around something

4 A rocket is a transportation system for It is a device placed in orbits in order to

getting load e.g. artificial satellites, cargo, collect information or communication
men into the space

5 Uses jet fuel as its source of energy Uses the sunlight/solar panel as its source
of energy

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 6 Uses jet fuel and oxygen for its propulsion Uses gravity for its movement

7 Used to transport man into space To study space and transmits signal

Explain how an artificial satellites can be used to relay 2014 world cup football matches to
be held in Brazil to observers in their various houses in Nigeria?

An artificial satellite will be used to transmit the world cup football matches to be played in
Brazil in the following way: A ground transmitting station situated in Brazil receive signals i.e. a
video camera. The signals are then transmitted to the artificial satellites called communication
satellites where they are amplified and then beamed downwards to satellites dishes to over the
world. So an observer in Nigeria whose T.V. is connected to satellite dish watches the matches in
his houses.

Worked Examples

1. Calculate the radius of the parking orbit of an artificial satellites.

[g = 10m/s2, radius = 6.6 x 106m,  = 22/7]

√
2
r gR
rp = 2
4π
rp = radius of parking orbit
T = period of the orbit
= 24hours = 24 x 60 x 60 = 86400seconds

√
2
( 86400 )2 x 10 x ( 6.6 x 10 6 )
rp = rp = 2.87 x 1011m
4x ( )
22 2
7

2. A geostationary satellite moves in an orbit of radius [Link]

the speed with which it moves in the orbit ( = 22/7)
2 πR 2 x 22 x 63000000
V= = = 458.3m/s
r 7 × 24 x 3600
Types of Nigerian Satellites

1. Nigerian Sat I– 1st Nigerian satellite, launched on 27 September, 2003.

 Give advance warning of natural disaster like floods
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 Provide the technology needed to bring education to all parts of the country
 Ecosystem-evaluation, monitoring of vegetation and land use
 For agriculture, mapping and land use planning
 Demographic uses such as mapping and planning of population surveys, census
enumeration area.

2. Nigeria Sat 2/Nigeria Sat – X – are the 3rd and 4th satellites. They would launched on
17 August, 2011. Functions: Same as above

3. Nigcomsat 1 – 2nd satellites and 1st in African launched on 13 May, 2007 but on Nov
11, 2008. It failed in orbit after running out of power.

4. Nigcomsat IR:To replace the lost Nigcomsat 1, that was launched on 19 December, 2011

Uses of satellite

1. Research Satellite: To study radiation from the sunlight and radio emission from distant
stars.

2. Communication Satellite: Provide a worldwide link up of radio, telephone and

television. The 1st communication satellite was.

3. Weather/Meteorological Satellites: Provide continuous up to date information about

large scale atomic conditions such as cloud cover and temperature profiles.

4. Navigation Satellites: To satisfy the need for a navigation system that nuclear submarine
could use to update their in vertical navigation system.

5. Military Satellites: like Infrared sensors that tracks missile launches, electronic sensors
that caves drops on classified.

6. Application Satellites: To test ways of improving satellites technology itself like

structure, controls, instrumentation and navigation satellites.

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