SURVEYING
● Art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extend, and relative positions of points, lines, and areas on or near the
surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques.
● Gathering of various data about the land, involves description of the exact
characteristics of the land structure and surface.
Importance
● Planning and design of all civil engineering projects require measurements from
surveying.
● Execution of work needs survey for transferring the points on to the ground.
● Fixing state and national boundaries also required measurements obtained from
surveying.
● Hydrological and oceanographic charting and mapping.
● Control points can be established with the help of surveying.
● Topographic maps of the land surface can be prepared with the help of surveys.
Two General Classification of Surveys
1. Plane surveying - type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat
surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the
exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic surveying - Surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spherical shape of the earth.
Types of surveys
1. Cadastral surveys - usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and
rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and
boundaries, corners, and areas.
2. City surveys - Surveys of areas in or near a city
3. Construction surveys - surveys undertaken at a construction site to provide
data regarding grades, reference line, dimensions, ground configurations, and
the location and elevation of structure.
4. Forestry surveys - surveys executed in connection with forest management
and mensuration and the production and conservation of forest land
5. Hydrographic surveys - Made to map shorelines, chart the shape of areas
underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
6. Industrial surveys or optical tooling - Use of surveying techniques in
shipbuilding, construction and assembly of aircraft, and other industries where
very accurate dimensional layouts are acquired
7. Mine surveys - Performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures
8. Photogrammetric surveys - Make use of photographs taken with a
specially-designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations
9. Route surveys - involves determination of alignment, grades, earthwork
quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning
design and construction of highways, pipelines, railroads etc.
10. Topographic surveys - Made for determining the shape of the ground and
location and elevation of natural and artificial features of upon it (hills, mountains,
rivers)
Surveying measurements
● A surveying measurement is always subject to imperfections of the instrument
use and different errors inherent in the process of obtaining the measurement.
● no exact or true measurement quantity is ever possible and the true value of
measure quantity is never knew
Direct measurement
● Comparison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring unit employed
for measuring quantity of that kind
Indirect measurement
● When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly
● the observed value is determined by its relationship to some other unknown
values
Mega- 1000000
Kilo- 1000
hecto - 100
Deca- 10
Deci- 0.1
Centi- 0.01
Milli- 0.001
Micro- 0.00001
Nano- 0.000000001
Angular measurements
● Radian - Angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the circle
○ 2πrad = 360 degrees
○ 1 rad = 57°17’44.8” or 57.2958 degrees
Surveying Field Notes
● Constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual work done in the field
● Or referred to by office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not
familiar with conditions on the project site
● should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time observations are made
● May be used as evidence
Types of notes
● Sketches
○ Rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made the
proximately to scale
○ drawn freehand and features are shown by conventional symbols
● Tabulations
○ prevents mistakes, allow easy checking, saves time, makes the
calculation legible to other, and simplifies the work of the person checking
the field notes
● Explanatory notes
○ provide a written description of what has been done in the field
○ They are placed on the right hand page of the field notebook in the same
line of the numerical data that they explain
● Computations
● Computations of the above
Information found in the field notes
● Title of the fieldwork or name of the project
● time of the day and date
● weather conditions
● names of group members and their designation
● list of equipment
The field survey party
● Chief of party - responsible for the overall direction, supervision, and
operational control of the survey party
● Assistant Chief of Party - performs technical engineering work and assist the
survey party chief in the direction of a preliminary or performs related work as
required
● Instrumentman - set up level operate surveying instruments such as the transit,
theodolite, plane table etc.
● Computer - perform all computations of survey data and computational checks
● Technician - repair, install, replace, and service different systems and
equipment
● Recorder - keep a record of all sketches drawings measurements and
observations taken or needed for a field work operation
● Head tapeman - responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape
● Rear tapeman - assist head tapeman during taping operations
● Flagman - hold the flagpole orange pole at selected points
● Rodman - hold the stadia or leveling rod when sites are to be taken on it
● Pacer - check all linear measurements made by tapeman
● Aidman - render first aid treatment to members of the survey party who are
involved in snake and insect bites, accidents, and other cases
● Utility Men - render other forms of assistance needed by the survey party.
EQUIPMENT IN SURVEYING
Measuring tapes
● Steel tape: available in length 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, and 50 m.These tapes are
supplied in a corrosion-resistant metal case or a leather case with a winding
device. Its quality and accuracy are far better than the
other types.
●
Surveying chains
● To measure linear distances with precision
● Used to measure the distance on the ground. It gives
much more accurate measurement as compared to
tape.
● Made up of connecting links of galvanized mild steel. The mild steel wire is bent
into a ring and joined to each other with three small circular oval rings each
connecting link measures 20 cm.
● The total length of the chain is 20 m or 30 m which also includes a brass handle
on each end. The handles are provided with swivel joints so they can be easily
turned during surveying without being twisted.
Types:
1. Metric chain - widely used and available in lengths of 5 10 20 and 30 m.
2. Surveyor’s chain - length is 66 feet and has 100 links. Widely used for land
measurement as 10 square chains make one acre.
3. Engineer’s chain -length is 100 feet and has 100
links. Brass tags are installed every 10 feet.
4. Revenue chain - length is 33 feet and has 16 links
Arrow
● To mark a single chain distance
● Used for marking and are made up of hardened and
tempered steel wire of good quality
Peg
● To fix points on the ground To mark the terminal points of survey
lines on the ground
● Mostly made of timber. They are used to mark out the locations
on the ground at terminal points or the end of the
survey line Where is used to drive the peg on the
ground
Ranging rods
● To mark the position of stations, sight the stations,
and range straight lines.
● Arrange an intermediate point on a survey line.
● A red, yellow, or white flag is tied at its top while
carrying out longer service because the rod is not visible by a 200 meter distance
Offset rods
● Arranging rod but is of 3m length
● Used to take rough offsets in the nearby regions
Plumb bob
● Use to transfer the points to the ground on the slope while cheney it is also
● used to make the ranging poles vertical
Optical squares
● Instrument for setting out right angles on a survey line
Site square
● for setting out right angles on a survey line
Prismatic Compass
● Comprises a magnetic needle attached to a graduated circular
ring made up of aluminum
● used to find out the bearing of the traversing and included
angles between them, waypoints (an endpoint of the course)
and direction.
Surveyor’s compass
● Find a bearing and angles between two survey lines in a traverse
● an instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line with reference to
the direction of a magnetic needle. The needle is balanced at its center on a
“pivot” so that it swings freely in a horizontal plane.
Theodolite
● Most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles.
● To measure the angle between two pre-decided visible points in either horizontal
or vertical plane
Parts of transit theodolite include
1. Telescope
2. Vertical circle
3. Index/Vernier frame
4. Standards/A frame
5. Leveling head
6. Two Spindles
7. Lower/Scale Plate
8. Upper/Vernier Plate
9. Plate levels
10. Tripod 11. Plumb bob
12. Compass
13. Striding level
A theodolite can be used to
● Measure the magnetic bearing of a line
● Measure direct angles
● Measure deflection angles
● Extend a straight line
● Establish a straight line between two points Locating point of intersection
between two straight lines
● Setting out a horizontal angle Setting out an angle by repetition
● Establish grade
● Measure the difference in elevation
● Setting out curves.
Total station
● An electronic transit theodolite with an
electronic distance meter (EDM).
● Used to take the measurement of
○ horizontal angles
○ Vertical angle
○ Slope distance
● TS can store data too as some have inbuilt internal electronic data storage which
can be uploaded to the computer and the data analysis can be done with the
help of various applications
Plane Table
● a device used in surveying site mapping, exploration
mapping, coastal navigation mapping, and related
disciplines to provide a solid and level surface on
which to make field drawings, charts and maps.
Spirit level
● To level the table in a plane table surveying
Dumpy level
● The dumpy level is an optical surveying leveling instrument consisting of a
telescope tube firmly secured in two collars fixed by
adjusting screws to the stage by the vertical spindle.
● To determine relative height and distance among
different locations of a surveying land.
● To determine relative distance among different locations
of a surveying land.
Leveling staff
● A straight road with graduation marks with zero from the bottom
● Difference between two points
● To measure the height or depth of a point with respect to the
datum
Level
● To establish relative height of points with the help of leveling staff
Trough compass
● To set the a relation towards magnetic north in plane table surveying
Drawing paper
● To note field points on paper in plane table surveying
Cross staff
● To set out a right angle from a survey line
Alidade
● To cite a distant object and establish a line of sight in plane table surveying
Plumbing fork
● For centering an alidade in plane table surveying
ERROR AND MISTAKES
ERRORS
● the difference between the true value and the measured values
● difference from a true value caused by infection of a person's senses, by the
imperfection of the equipment, or weather affects
● one of the important functions of the survey is to secure measurements which
are correct within the certain limits of error prescribed by the nature and purpose
of survey that he knows the source of error, understand the effect of the various
errors and observe quantities and familiar with the procedure necessary of
required precision
● Can be corrected and its effect can be minimized as long as you know the source
MISTAKES
● mistakes or blunder result from misunderstanding the problem, poor judgment,
confusion on the part of the observer, or careless procedures. It has no place in
any engineering works
● Difference from a true value caused by the inattention of the survey
● Example:
○ read number 9 as 6
○ Record wrong quantities in the field notes
SOURCES OF ERRORS
● Personal Errors
○ Arise because of the Limitations of human senses of sight, touch, or
hearing
○ COMMON EXAMPLES ARE:
1. Error in reading the angle on the graduated circle and vernier of an
instrument.
2. Error in estimating the tension applied on a steel tape during
measurement
3. Failure to align perfectly the cross hair on the target sighted.
● Instrumental Errors
○ These are due to the imperfection in the instruments or accessories with
which the measurements are taken either fault in the manufacturer.
Sometimes we need to calibrate the instruments to assure avoid errors.
The effect of most instrumental errors can be reduced or eliminated
● Natural Errors
○ caused by variations of the phenomena of nature such as change in
temperature, humidity , wind , gravity and curvature of the earth. These
errors can be quite to the control of the man, however, he can take
necessary precautions and adapt his method to prevailing conditions in
order to keep the resulting errors within acceptable limits.
○ COMMON EXAMPLES ARE:
1. the effect of temperature variation on the length of steel tape.
2. Deflection to the line of sight due to curvature of the earth.
3. Errors in the reading of magnetic needles due to variations in
magnetic declinations.
KINDS OF ERRORS
Systematic Errors
● Also known as cumulative, these errors can be eliminated by applying
corrections.
Accidental Errors
● This errors which remain after MISTAKES and they are caused by factor beyond
the control of the observer
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
● Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
● Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
RESIDUAL
● Sometimes referred to as deviation, is the
difference between elements of value of a
quantity and its most probable error
PROBABLE ERROR
● Quantity which, when added
to and subtracted from the
most probable value defines
a range within which there is
a 50% chance that the true
value of the measured
quantity lies inside or outside
the limits thus set.
RELATIVE ERROR / RELATIVE PRECISION
● Used to check the accuracy of a measurement and to
define the degree of refinement obtained
● Note: It is necessary to express both quantities in the
same units and the numerator is reduced to unity or one
in order to provide an easy comparison with other
measurements
INTERRELATION OF ERRORS
SUMMATION OF ERRORS
PRODUCT OF ERRORS
WEIGHTED MEAN
Weighted mean = ∑P / ∑w
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