DC Motor

A DC motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical energy

input into the mechanical energy output.
The operation of the DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor. The magnitude of the force is
given by,
F= BIL Newtons

Constructional and Parts of DC Motor

The construction of the D.C. motor is the same as D.C. Generator.

Following are the parts of a DC motor:

1. Yoke or frame
2. Field poles
3. Field winding
4. Brushes
5. End shields
6. Armature core
7. Armature winding
8. Commutator
9. Shaft
1) Yoke or Frame: It is a stationary part called a starter. The functions of Yoke are:

 It supports the field poles and field winding.

 Provides a magnetic path to the main field flux.
 Provides protection to armature from mechanical injury.
2) Field Poles: The main functions of poles are :

 Provides support to the field winding.

 Provide slow reactance path to the main field flux.
 Distributes the main field flux uniformly all around the periphery of the armature.

3) Field Windings: They produce a magnetic field when D.C. is passed through them.
4) Brushes: They receive D.C. from the main and supply it to the armature winding through a
commutator.

5) End Shields: The main functions are:

 Supports the bearings in which armature rotates.

 Covers the armature and protects it.
6) Armature Core: It houses the windings in the slot and provides a low reactance path to the
main field flux and the armature flux.

7) Armature Windings: It produces armature flux when current is passed through them. This flux
reacts with the main field flux and produces rotation or torque.

8) Commutator: It collects D.C. from brushes, converts it into A.C., and supplies it to the
armature windings.

9) Shaft: The main functions are :

 It provides support to the armature, windings and commutator.

 It helps the armature to rotate.

Working of DC Motor
Consider a two pole DC motor as shown in the figure. When the DC motor is connected to an
external source of DC supply, the field coils are excited developing alternate N and S poles and a
current flows through the armature windings.

All the armature conductors under N pole carry current in one direction (say into the plane of the
paper), whereas all the conductors under S pole carry current in the opposite direction (say out of
the plane of the paper). As each conductor carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic field,
hence a mechanical force acts on it.
By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it can be seen that the force on each conductor is tending to
move the armature in anticlockwise direction. The force on all the conductors add together to exert
a torque which make the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to
the other, the current in the conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the
influence of next pole of opposite polarity. As a result of this, the direction of force on the
conductor remains the same. Therefore, the motor being rotating in the same direction.

Types of DC Motor

According to the type of connection of the field winding with the armature, the DC motors
are classified as follows −

 Permanent Magnet DC Motors

 Separately-Excited DC Motors
 Self-Excited DC Motors
o Series Wound DC Motor
o Shunt Wound DC Motor
o Compound Wound DC Motor

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

A DC motor in which the main field flux is produced by the permanent magnets is known
as permanent magnet DC motor. In this type DC motor, there is only one external source of DC
supply is required, for supplying electrical power to the armature. The permanent magnet DC
motors are mainly used in small scale application like in toys.
Separately-Excited DC Motor

In a separately-excited DC motor, the main field winding is excited by an external source of DC

supply. The separately-excited dc motor is a doubly-excited motor, in which two sources of DC
supply are required, one for armature and the second for the excitation of field winding.

Here,

Series Wound DC Motor

A DC motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding is known
as series wound DC motor. Since the series field winding carries the whole armature current.
Therefore, the series field winding has a small number of turns of thick wire and should possess a
low resistance.

Here,
Applications – The series DC motors are variable speed motors i.e. their speed is low at high
torque and vice-versa. Although, at no-load or light load, the motor attains dangerously high
speed. The series motors have high starting torques. Therefore, they are used in following
applications -

 Used where large starting torque is required like in elevators, electric tractions, cranes, etc.
 Used where load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is required to be
automatically regulated according to load requirements.
 Also used in air compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines etc.

Shunt Wound DC Motor

A shunt wound DC motor is the one, in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding. The shunt field windings are designed to have high resistance, i.e., have a large
number of turns of fine wire so that the shunt field current is relatively small as compared to the
armature current.

Here,

Applications – The shunt motors are constant speed motors. Therefore, they are used in following
applications -
  Where speed is required to remain constant form no-load to full load.
 Used in lathes, drills, sharpers, spinning and weaving machines, boring mills etc.

Compound Wound DC Motor

A DC motor in which both the series field and shunt field are combined is known as compound
wound DC motor. There two types of compound DC motors as −
Short-Shunt Compound Motor
In a short-shunt compound motor, the shunt field winding is directly connected in parallel with the
armature winding.

Long-Shunt Compound Motor

When the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the series combination of armature
winding and the series field winding, then the motor is known as long-shunt compound motor.

Note – When the series field flux aids the shunt field flux, i.e., both are in same direction, then the
compound motor is known cumulative compound motor whereas when the series field opposes the
shunt field, i.e., both are in opposite direction, the motor is known as differential compound motor.
Important – The compound DC machines (generator or motor), are always designed such that the
magnetic flux produced by shunt field winding is greater than the flux produced by the series field
winding.
Applications – The differentially-compound motors are rarely used due to their poor torque
characteristics. However, the cumulatively-compound motors are used in the constant speed
applications with irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads like presses, reciprocating
machines and shears etc.
 Three phase Induction Motor
Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor
The three phase induction motor is the most widely used electrical motor. Almost 80% of the
mechanical power used by industries is provided by three phase induction motors because of its
simple and rugged construction, low cost, good operating characteristics, the absence of
commutator and good speed regulation. In three phase induction motor, the power is transferred
from stator to rotor winding through induction. The induction motor is also called a synchronous
motor as it runs at a speed other than the synchronous speed.
Like any other electrical motor induction motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator.

1. Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A stator winding
is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is given to it.
2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the
mechanical load through the shaft.
The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as

1. Squirrel cage rotor,

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the three phase induction motor are
classified as:
1. Squirrel cage induction motor,
2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor.

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three main parts :

1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding.
Stator Frame
It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator
core and the field winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection and mechanical strength
to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die-cast or fabricated
steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be strong and rigid as the air gap length of
three phase induction motor is very small. Otherwise, the rotor will not remain concentric with the
stator, which will give rise to an unbalanced magnetic pull.

Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy
current loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up of
stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form stator
core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping is made up of silicon steel, which helps to
reduce the hysteresis loss occurring in the motor.

Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry three phase
windings. The three phase ac supply to this three-phase winding. The three phases of the winding
are connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting method we use. We start
the squirrel cage motor mostly with star-delta starter and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is
delta connected. We start the slip ring three-phase induction motor by inserting resistances so, the
stator winding of slip ring induction motor can be connected either in star or delta. The winding
wound on the stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding, and when this
winding is excited by three phase ac supply, it produces a rotating magnetic field.

Depending on rotor type the 3-phase IM are

1. Squirrel Cage Three Phase Induction Motor

The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical and have
slots on its periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed
(skewing is not shown in the figure of squirrel cage rotor besides) as the skewing prevents
magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of the motor more smooth
and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper
bras rotor is shown in the figure beside). This aluminum, brass or copper bars are called
rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor
conductors are permanently shorted by the copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings.
To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence
form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as squirrel
cage induction motor. The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As end rings
permanently short the bars, the rotor resistance is quite small, and it is not possible to add
external resistance as the bars get permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and
brushes make the construction of Squirrel cage three-phase induction motor very simple
and robust and hence widely used three phase induction motor. These motors have the
advantage of adopting any number of pole pairs. The below diagram shows a squirrel cage
induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit by aluminum end rings.

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less maintenance.
Disadvantage:
The rotor bars are permanently short-circuited and it is not possible to add any
external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a large starting torque.

Applications of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

The use of squirrel cage induction motors in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower, printing
machines, etc
 2. Slip Ring or Wound Rotor Three Phase Induction Motor

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3-phase winding, similar to

the one on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is
usually star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and
joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting
on each slip ring. The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected
rheostat as shown in Fig. At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor
circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are gradually reduced to zero
as the motor runs up to speed. The external resistances are used during starting
period only. When the motor attains normal speed, the three brushes are short-
circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor

1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.

2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Application of Slip Ring Induction Motor

Slip ring induction motors are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes,
elevator etc.

Principle of Operation
Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Fig. The
operation of the motor can be explained as under:
(i) When 3-phase stator
winding is energized from
a 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field is
set up which rotates round
the stator at synchronous
speed Ns (= 120 f/P).

(ii) The rotating field (Rotating Magnetic Field )

Passes through the air gap and
cuts the rotor conductors, which as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the
rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor
circuit is short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.

(iii) The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical forces on
all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same direction as
the rotating field.

(iv) The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction of stator
field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor currents will be
such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them. Now, the cause producing the rotor
currents is the relative speed between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence
to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and
tries to catch it.
Difference between Slip Ring and Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Slip ring or phase wound Induction

Squirrel cage induction motor
motor
Construction is complicated due to presence
Construction is very simple
of slip ring and brushes
The rotor consists of rotor bars which are
The rotor winding is similar to the stator
permanently shorted with the help of end
winding
rings
We can easily add rotor resistance by using Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted,
slip ring and brushes its not possible to add external resistance
Due to presence of external resistance high
Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
starting torque can be obtained
Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent
Frequent maintenance is required due to
Less maintenance is required
presence of brushes
The construction is complicated and the The construction is simple and robust and it
presence of brushes and slip ring makes the is cheap as compared to slip ring induction
motor more costly motor

Due to its simple construction and low cost.

This motor is rarely used only 10% industry
The squirrel cage induction motor is widely
uses slip ring induction motor
used
Rotor copper losses are high and hence less Less rotor copper losses and hence high
efficiency efficiency
Speed control by rotor resistance method is Speed control by rotor resistance method is
possible not possible
Slip ring induction motor are used where Squirrel cage induction motor is used in
high starting torque is required i.e in hoists, lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
cranes, elevator etc machines etc
 Synchronous Machine
Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as well as synchronous generators.
The machine which converts mechanical power into AC electrical power is called as Synchronous
Generator or Alternator. However, if the same machine can be operated as a motor is known
as Synchronous Motor.
A synchronous machine is an electrical machine whose rotating speed is proportional to the
frequency of the alternating current supply and independent of the load.
The most common type of 3 phase motors are synchronous motors and induction motors. When
three-phase electric conductors are placed in certain geometrical positions (i.e. in a certain angle
from one another) – an electrical field is generated. The rotating magnetic field rotates at a certain
speed known as the synchronous speed.
It Consists of two sets of windings:
 3 phase armature winding on the stator distributed with centres 120° apart in space
 field winding on the rotor supplied by DC
 Two basic rotor structures used: The rotor of a synchronous machine is a large
electromagnet
 salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic units (low speed)
 round rotor structure for thermal units (high speed)
 Salient poles have concentrated field windings; usually also carry damper windings on the
pole face.

If an electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is magnetically

locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with the same speed of rotating field.
This is where the term synchronous motor comes from, as the speed of the rotor of the motor is
the same as the rotating magnetic field.
It is a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed. This speed is
synchronized with the supply frequency. The synchronous speed is given by:

Where:

 N= The Synchronous Speed (in RPM – i.e. Rotations Per Minute)

 f = The Supply Frequency (in Hz)
 p = The number of Poles
Construction of Synchronous Motor

 Usually, its construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction motor, except the
fact that here we supply DC to the rotor., i.e, three phase supply to the stator and DC supply
to the rotor.

Main Features of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting. They require some external means to
bring their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition
3. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor.
This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.

Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are a doubly excited machine, i.e., two electrical inputs are provided to it. Its
stator winding which consists of a three-phase supply to three-phase stator winding, and DC to the
rotor winding.

The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux. The
rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the 50 Hz power frequency,
from the above relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolutions in 1
min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec.

At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of the same polarity (N-N or S-S) causing a
repulsive force on the rotor and the very next instant it will be N-S causing attractive force. But
due to the inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to that attractive or
repulsive forces, and the rotor remains in standstill condition. Hence a synchronous motor is not
self-starting.

Here we use some mechanical means which initially rotates the rotor in the same direction as the
magnetic field to speed very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed,
magnetic locking occurs, and the synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal of
external mechanical means.
Application of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power
factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power factor, it
is used in power system in situations where static capacitors are expensive.
2. Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm) and
high power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight
and cost of the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence these motors
are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills etc.

STEPPER MOTOR

In simple words, it is a combination of DC motor with electronics technology which allows

the motor to rotate and stop at specified angle. It is mostly used in robotics where move the arm of
robots at specified angle and hold there for some time and get back return after it.

This is a brushless electromechanical device which is used to convert the series of electric
pulses applied at their excitation winding into precisely defined step by step the mechanical shaft
rotation. In others words, the stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts
electrical power into mechanical power.

If the steps angle is smaller, then the greater will be the number of the step per revolution
and higher would be the accuracy of the position obtained. The step angle can be as large as 90
degrees and as small as 0.72 degree, however, the usually used step angles are 1.8, 2.5, 7.5 and 15
degrees.

CONSTRUCTION OF STEPPER MOTOR:

Stepper motor construction is quite similar to DC motor. It also has a permanent magnet as Rotor.
Rotor will be in the center and will rotate when force is acts on it. This rotor is surrounded by a
number of stator which is wound by magnetic coil all over it. Stator will be placed as close as
possible to rotor so that magnetic fields in stators can influence rotor’s movement. To control the
stepper motor each stator will be powered one by one alternatively. In this case the stator will
magnetize and act as an electromagnetic pole exerting repulsive force on the rotor and pushes it to
move one step. Alternative magnetizing and demagnetizing of stators will move the rotor step by
step and enable it to rotate with great control.

Based on stator, it can be classified into two types. They are Unipolar and Bipolar stepper motors.

STEPPER MOTOR WORKING PRINCIPLES

 As all with electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator) and a moving part
(the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are wired, while the rotor is either
a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance iron core. We will dive deeper into the different rotor
structures later. Figure 1 shows a drawing representing the section of the motor is shown, where
the rotor is a variable-reluctance iron core.

Figure 1: Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor

The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By energizing one or more of
the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by the current flowing in the coil and the rotor
aligns with this field. By supplying different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a
specific amount to reach the desired final Position. Figure 2 shows a representation of the working
principle. At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it
produces. When coil B is energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the new
magnetic field. The same happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the colors of the stator
teeth indicate the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

Figure 2: Stepper Motor Steps

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTOR BASED ON CONSTRUCTION:

There are different types of stepper motor which varies with its complexity in construction and
working. In this tutorial we will see some of the basic types and it’s construction.
PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR:

In this motor a permanent magnet is used as Rotor and electromagnetic stators around it. This is the
motor we saw in above examples. Here the stator will be magnetized and demagnetized to move
the rotor and set the motor to rotation.

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR:

This motor is built using Ferromagnetic rotor and Electromagnetic stator with coil winding to
magnetize them. Here the rotor will have multiple projections also called as teeth which will act
like magnetic poles. This stepper motor works based on Magnetic reluctance hence got its name.
When current passes through stator pole, it will magnetize and pulls the rotor’s projecting poles in
a way the distance between them is minimum and in full alignment. The driver circuit will
continue to magnetize stators setting the rotor into rotation.

HYBRID SYNCHRONOUS STEPPER MOTOR:

This is a combination of above two motor permanent and variable reluctance stepper motor. This
motor consists of permanent magnetic toothed rotor like the ones in permanent magnet stepper
motor with set of north and south poles in it. Also just like variable reluctant motor the stators have
teeth in it. Few teeth of stator will be aligned to teeth of rotor while others will not be aligned to
each other. When stator is magnetized by supplying current to it, magnetic flux drives the rotor to
move by one step. The presence of teeth in both stator and rotor changes the magnetic flux and
drives the motor by steps as intended.

The Hybrid synchronous motor is most popular since it has high torque and resolution. Driving
modes like half step can even increase the resolution of this motor. While full step or micro
stepping can be used to increase the torque, accuracy and smooth working. The hybrid motor is
most popular because of the advantages it hold but comes with high cost due to its complex
construction.

CHARACTERISTICS TO LOOK FOR IN STEPPER MOTOR:

These are some of the important characteristics you need to look for in a stepper motor.

 Resolution
 Rotating angle
 Operating voltage
 Torque
 Speed

ADVANTAGES:
 The rotation angle is proportional to the input pulses.
 Full torque at standstill.
 Very low-speed synchronous rotation is possible to achieve.
 There are no brushes so it is reliable.
 Speed is directly proportional to the frequency of the input as pulses; hence a wide range of
rotational speed can be realized.
 Low speed with high precision.

DISADVANTAGES:
 No feedback system.
 Low effitiency.
 May produce more noise.
 Difficult to operate at very high speed.
 For the smooth move, micro stepping is required.

APPLICATIONS:
 Factory automation.
 Packaging.
 Material handling.
 Aerospace industry especially in avionics.
 3D pictures acquisition system.
 Laser measurements.
 Robotics.
Single Phase Transformer

The transformer is a static device which converts the magnetic energy into electrical energy. It
consists of two or more than two stationary circuits interlinked by a common magnetic circuit; the
energy transfer takes place through this circuit without having any change in frequency from one
circuit to another.

The transformer consists of two windings. The winding which is connected with the supply a.c.
voltage is called the primary winding, and the winding which is connected to load and delivers the
energy to load is called secondary winding.

Parts of a Transformer

A typical transformer essentially consists of following main parts −

 Magnetic Core
 Transformer Windings
 Transformer Body / Tank and Dielectric Oil
 Oil Conservator Tank
 Breather

Magnetic Core

The core of the transformer is made up of magnetic materials having high permeability. As the
transformer is subjected to the AC supply, thus its core is built up of thin lamination stacked
together to reduce the eddy current losses in the core. The windings of the transformer are wound
on the core of the transformer. The core of the transformer mainly serves two purposes as,

 It provides support to the windings.

 It provides a low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.

Transformer Windings

The transformer consists of two windings viz. the primary winding and the secondary winding.
The winding connected to the source of AC supply is called as the primary winding while the
winding of the transformer to which the load is connected is known as the secondary winding. The
AC voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied across the primary winding.
Depending upon the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings, an alternating EMF
(E2) being induced in the secondary winding of the transformer. This induced EMF (E2) results a
load current I2, hence a terminal V2 would appear across the load.
If V2> V1, the transformer is said to be step-up transformer. On the other hand, if V1 > V2, the
transformer is said to be step-down transformer.

Transformer Body / Tank and Dielectric Oil

The transformer tank provides protection to the core and the windings of the transformer. The
transformer core and windings arrangement are immersed in the tank containing dielectric oil. The
dielectric oil / insulating oil acts as an insulating medium for the core and windings of the
transformer and it also absorbs the heat generated, hence it works as cooling medium of the
transformer.

Oil Conservator Tank

The main tank of the transformer is connected through a pipe to a small tank, called
as conservator tank. The main function of the conservator tank is to keep the transformer tank
completely filled with the dielectric oil at all operating conditions. The conservator tank is
designed to act as a reservoir for the transformer oil. When the temperature of the transformer is
increased, the oil inside the transformer being expended. The conservator tank provides space for
this expansion of the dielectric oil.

Breather

The breather of the transformer consists of silica gel, which prevents any atmospheric moisture
from entering the tank of the transformer with air. When the temperature of the transformer goes
down, it will make the dielectric oil to contract and hence the atmospheric air gets inhaled by the
transformer. Thus, all the moisture of the air gets absorbed by silica gel of the breather.

Working Principle of Transformer

The working of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual inductance between two coils
which are magnetic coupled.
According to the principle of mutual inductance, when an alternating voltage is applied to the
primary winding of the transformer, an alternating flux ϕm which is called as the mutual flux is
produced in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings magnetically and induces EMFs
E1 in the primary winding and E2 in the secondary winding of the transformer according to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The EMF (E1) is called as primary EMF and the EMF
(E2) is known as secondary EMF and being given as,

From the above expression it can be seen that the magnitude of EMFs E 1 and E2 depend upon the
number of turns in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer respectively, i.e., if
N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, thus the transformer will be a step-up transformer and if N2 < N1, then E2 <
E1, thus the transformer will be a step-down transformer.
If a load is now connected across the secondary winding, the EMF E2 will cause a load current
I2 to flow through the load. Therefore, a transformer enables the transfer of power from one
electric circuit to another with a change in voltage level.
EMF Equation of a Transformer
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux
ϕm sets up in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and
secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect
to time is derived mathematically.

The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
 Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f
seconds.

By Faraday’s Law

Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf
Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as

Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as transformation ratio.

The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation

(ϕm = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.
Electrical Wiring
Electrical wiring is the electrical power distribution through the wires in a perfect manner for
economic use of wiring conductors inside a room or building with better load control.
Electrical wiring system is classified into five categories:
 Cleat wiring
 Casing wiring
 Batten wiring
 Conduit wiring
 Concealed wiring
Cleat Wiring
Material Used in Cleat Wiring
 VIR or PVC insulated wires
 Weather proof cables
 Porcelain cleats or plastic cleats (two or three grooves)
 Screws

Procedure of Cleat Wiring

In this wiring VIR or PVC insulated wires are braided and compounded on walls or ceiling with
the help of porcelain cleats.The wires can be weather proof. Simple wire laying is done in this
scheme of wiring. In present days, this kind of wiring scheme is not recommended for house or
building. Only in temporary army campus or festival related pandels this wiring is used.
Advantages of Cleat Wiring
There are some advantages of this type of wiring.
 Cheap and easy wiring
 Easy to fault detection
 Easy to repair
 Alteration and addition is easy.
Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring
The disadvantages of this wiring are
 Bad appearance
 Exposed to weather to be affected by humidity, rain, smoke, sunlight etc
 Chances for shock or fire
 Used in only 220V in low ambient temperature.
  Not long lasting
 Sag happens
Casing Wiring
Material Used in Casing Wiring
 VIR or PVC insulated wires
 Casing Enclosure (made of wood or plastic)
 Capping (made of wood or plastic)
 Casing and capping joints.
Procedure of Casing Wiring
This kind of winding is very old fashioned. Generally PVC or VIR insulated wires are carried
through the casing enclosure and capping is used to cover the casing.

Advantages of Casing Wiring

Advantages of this kind of wiring scheme are
 Cheap and easy to install
 Strong and durable wiring
 Customization can be done easily
 Safe from smoke, dust, rain and steam etc.
 Due to casing and capping no risk of shock.
Disadvantages of Casing Wiring
There are some disadvantages in casing wiring; they are
 Very costly
 Not suitable for weather with high humidity and acidic conditions.
 Insect like termites or ants can damage wooden casing and capping.
 High risk of fire.
Batten Wiring
Material Used in Batten Wiring
 CTS or TRS cable
 Straight teak wooden batten (at 10 mm thick)
 Tinned brass link clip ( buckle clip)
 Brass pins
Procedure of Batten Wiring
Group of Single or double or three core cables are used to be laid on straight teak wooden batten.
The cables are hold with help of tinned brass link clip or buckle clip. Brass pins are used to fix the
buckle clips on the wooden batten. Buckle clips is fixed with brass pin on the wooden batten at an
interval 10 cm for horizontal runs and 15 cm for vertical runs.

Advantages of Batten Wiring

The advantages of this kind of wiring are given below.
 Easy installation
 Cheap in material cost
 Appearance is better.
 Customization is easy
 Less chance of leakage current
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
The disadvantages of batten wiring are
 Not suitable for outdoor wiring
 Humidity, smoke, steam etc directly affect on wires.
 Heavy wires are not recommended for this wiring scheme.
 Only suitable for below 250 V.
 High risk of fire.
Conduit Wiring
Material Used in Conduit Wiring
 Conduit Metallic Conduit
1. Class A conduit: thin layer steel sheet low gauge conduit
2. Class B conduit: thick sheet of steel high gauge conduit
Non-Metalli Conduit
13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50 and 63 mm (diameter) PVC conduit.
 VIR or PVC insulated cables
 GI wire of 18SWG
 Screw
 Coupling
 Elbow
 Rigid off set
 2-hole strap
 Lock nut
Procedure of Conduit Wiring
This kind of wiring is not easy to install. On the surface of the wall or ceiling conduit pipes (with
GI wire inside) are attached with help of 2-hole strap and base clip at a regular certain distance.
Next GI wire is used to lay down the wires through the conduit pipe.

Advantages of Conduit Wiring

The main advantages are
 The safest wiring
 Appearance is better
 No risk of fire or mechanical wear and tear.
 No risk of damage of cable insulation
 Safe from humidity, smoke, steam etc.
 No risk of shock
 Long lasting
Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring
The disadvantages of conduit wiring are
 Very expensive
 Installation is not easy
 Not easy to customize for future
 Hard to detect the faults.
Concealed Wiring
Material Used in Concealed Wiring
Same materials are used in concealed wiring as conduit wiring.
Procedure of Concealed Wiring
Concealed wiring is properly named as concealed conduit wiring. It is very laborious to install. The
layout of this wiring is done under the plaster of the wall of the building. Conduit pipes are buried
under the plaster of wall with GI wire inside. After, with the help of GI wires, the main PVC
insulated cables are drawn through the conduit.
Advantages of Concealed Wiring
Same as conduit wiring
Disadvantages of Concealed Wiring
Same as conduit wiring.

Electrical Earthing

Definition: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly
to the earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing. The
electrical earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral
of supply system to the ground.

Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to the
leakage current. The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has zero
potential. Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.

Types of Electrical Earthing

The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are neutral
of the system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two non-current
carrying parts of the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types.

 Neutral Earthing
 Equipment Earthing.
Neutral Earthing

In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI
wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing. Such type of earthing is mostly
provided to the system which has star winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in the
generator, transformer, motor etc.

Equipment Earthing

Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part of the
equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the conducting wire. If
any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of wire.
Thus, protect the system from damage.

Importance of Earthing

The earthing is essential because of the following reasons

  The earthing protects the personnel from the shortcircuit current.
 The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of shortcircuit current even after the failure
of the insulation.
 The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage surges and lightning
discharge.
Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installation to some
system of electrical conductors or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level. The
earthing mat or electrode under the ground level have flat iron riser through which all the non-
current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment are connected.

When the fault occurs the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing system to
the earth and thereby protect the equipment from the fault current. At the time of the fault, the earth
mat conductors rise to the voltage which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a
ground fault.

The contacting assembly is called earthing. The metallic conductors connecting the parts of the
installation with the earthing are called electrical connection. The earthing and the earthing
connection together called the earthing system.
Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)
An electric fuse is a kind of safety device used to limit the flow of current in a functional electric
circuit. Whenever there is an excess flow of current or electric current overload through the circuit,
the fuse melts down thus breaking the electric circuit and avoid a short circuit.

Function of Fuse
In the field of electrical engineering, a fuse is a device that provides overcurrent protection to the
functional electrical circuit. Here, we have listed a few major functions of the fuse.

 Acts as a barrier between the electric circuit and the human body
 Prevents device failure due to faulty circuit operation
 Fuse prevents short-circuits
 Prevents overload and blackouts
 Prevents damage that is caused due to mismatched loads
Construction & Working of a Fuse
A general Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non combustible
material. It is used to connect and install in series with a circuit and device which needs to be
protected from short circuit and over current, other wise, electrical appliance may be damaged in
case of absence of the fuse and circuit breaker as they are unable to handle the excessive current
according to their rating limits
The working principle of a fuse is based on the “Heating effect of Current” i.e.
Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the thin wire
inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing through it.
Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In normal operation of the
circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does not affect the normal operation
of the system connected to the power supply.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
An MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies a complete
enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an MCB is to switch the circuit,
i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it) automatically when the current passing
through it (MCB) exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be manually switched ON and OFF as
similar to normal switch if necessary.

MCBs are time delay tripping devices, to which the magnitude of overcurrent controls the
operating time. This means, these get operated whenever overloads exist long enough to create a
danger to the circuit being protected.
Therefore, MCBs don’t respond to transient loads such as switches surges and motor starting
currents. Generally, these are designed to operate at less than 2.5 milliseconds during short
circuit faults and 2 seconds to 2 minutes in case of overloads (depending on the level of current).

Working & Operation of MCB

Under normal working conditions, MCB operates as a switch (manual one) to make the circuit ON
or OFF. Under overload or short circuit condition, it automatically operates or trips so that current
interruption takes place in the load circuit.
The visual indication of this trip can be observed by automatic movement of the operating knob to
OFF position. This automatic operation MCB can be obtained in two ways as we have seen in
MCB construction; those are magnetic tripping and thermal tripping.

Under overload conditions, the current through the bimetal causes it to raise the temperature of it.
The heat generated within the bimetal itself is enough to cause deflection due to thermal expansion
of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch and hence contacts get separated.
In some MCBs, the magnetic field generated by the coil causes it to develop pull on bimetals such
that deflection activates the tripping mechanism.

Under short circuit or heavy overload conditions, magnetic tripping arrangement comes into the
picture. Under normal working conditions, the slug is held in a position by a light spring because
the magnetic field generated by the coil is not sufficient to attract the latch.
When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated by the coil is sufficient to overcome the
spring force holding the slug in position. And hence slug moves and then actuate the tripping
mechanism.
A combination of both magnetic and thermal tripping mechanisms are implemented in most
miniature circuit breakers. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc is formed when
the contacts start separating. This arc is then forced into arc splitter plates via arc runner.
These arc splitter plates are also called arc chutes where arc is formed into a series of arcs and at
the same time energy extracted and cools it. Hence this arrangement achieves the arc extinction.

Relay:
A Relay is an electromechanical device that can be used to make or break an electrical connection.
It consists of a flexible moving mechanical part which can be controlled electronically through an
electromagnet, basically, a relay is just like a mechanical switch but you can control it with an
electronic signal instead of manually turning it on or off. Again this working principle of
relay fits only for the electromechanical relay.

There are many types of relay and each relay has its own application, a standard, and generally
used relay is made up of electromagnets which in general used as a switch. Dictionary says that
relay means the act of passing something from one thing to another, the same meaning can be
applied to this device because the signal received from one side of the device controls the
switching operation on the other side. So relay is a switch which controls (open and close) circuits
electromechanically. The main operation of this device is to make or break contact with the help of
a signal without any human involvement in order to switch it ON or OFF. It is mainly used to
control a high powered circuit using a low power signal. Generally, a DC signal is used to control
the circuit which is driven by high voltage like controlling AC home appliances with DC signals
from microcontrollers.

Construction of Relay and its operation:

As shown in the figure above, Current Transformer CT secondary winding is directly connected to
the Relay coil. Under normal condition, the current through the Relay coil is not sufficient enough
to pull the plunger and close the circuit of Breaker Tripping Coil. Notice here that Breaker
Tripping coil is solely responsible for the tripping of Circuit Breaker. If trip coil of breaker fails,
then tripping of Breaker will not take place. This is the reason, two trip coils are normally provided
in Circuit Breaker to get reliable operation of Breaker. Not only two Trip Coils are provided in CB
rather a Trip Coil monitoring Relay is also used. If case of fault i.e. if it happens to be any open
circuit in Trip Coil, then the Trip Coil Supervision Relay will be flagged to attract the attention of
the operator.
In case of fault, the current through the CT secondary will go up which will cause increased current
through the Relay coil. If it happens that the current through the Relay coil exceeds the setting
value or pick-up value then the coil will get produce sufficient magnetic pull to the plunger and
thus plunger will complete the CB trip circuit. As soon as the CB trip circuit is complete, current
will start flowing in the Trip Coil which in turn will pull a lever to trip the Circuit Breaker CB.

In the above figure, it is shown that Relay coil is directly pulling the plunger to complete the
Breaker Trip Coil circuit but in actual practice, Relay coil when picked up will change its contact
status. Let us say Relay Normally Open (NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit.
Therefore when the Relay coil is in de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not
complete and hence no tripping of the CB. During fault condition as the current through the Relay
coil exceeds the pick-up value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its contact
to change over i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the Trip Coil
circuit of the Breaker.
The general circuit representation of the relay is as shown in the figure below