General Botany 1

Introduction to Botany

Definition of Botany:

 A branch of biology dealing with plant life.

 The scientific study of the physiology, structure, genetics, ecology,

distribution, classification, and economic importance of plants.

Branches of Botany:

 Plant Anatomy - the structure of plants

 Plant Genetics- plant heredity

 Ecology - studies of the distribution of plants throughout the world,

& why certain species grow in certain places.

 Palaeobotany - plant evolution & fossil remains.

 Plant Physiology- plant metabolism.

 Plant Pathology- the study of plant diseases.

 Plant biotechnology —Present technology used in different Sub

disciplines in plant science
 Plant morphology— Structure and life cycles.
 Plant systematics(Taxonomy)—dealing with identification,
naming and classifying the living organisms
Why we could not live without plants?

✓ Plants produce most of the oxygen we breathe.

✓ Plants produce most of the chemically stored energy we consume

as food and burn for fuel.

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✓ Plants convert CO2 gas into sugars through the process of

photosynthesis.

✓ Plants produce an amazing assortment of useful chemicals (vitamin

A, vitamin C, Caffeine and morphine).

Why study plants?

✓ To help conserve endangered plants and threatened

environments.
✓ To learn more about the natural world.
✓ To better harness the abilities of plants to provide us with food,
medicines, and energy.

Plants - The basics:

✓ A huge variety of plants in the world.

✓ Live in almost every habitat.

✓ Can survive the harshest environments.

✓ The link between the sun and all other living things.

✓ Maintain the balance of atmospheric gases.

More plant basics:

✓ They regulate the water content of the soil.

✓ They provide habitats for other organisms.

✓ They give us some beautiful artistic moments.

Plants and the sun:

Plants turn the sun’s energy …… into food. This is

called………Photosynthesis.
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What do we need plant for?

1. For food:

▪ Cereals such as rice, maize

and wheat form the staple
foods of most countries

▪ Vegetables and fruits add

variety to our diets

▪ Herbs, spices, sugar, tea, coffee

and nuts are all plants.

▪ and…… we get chocolate from

plants !!!!

2. For medicines

▪ Known about since 2000BC

▪ Used for pain relief, reducing fever, sedation and upset stomach,
and curing infections

▪ Many are used for treating cancer

▪ ……And many more medicinal uses and plants treat cancer. It is

thought that at least 2000 plants may contain chemicals which can
help to treat cancer.

3. For raw materials

▪ Cotton for clothes and linens

▪ Jute and hemp for rope

▪ Trees for wood and paper

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▪ Seaweeds for alginates.

▪ Ink
▪ Paint
▪ Plastics
▪ Perfumes etc.

Ecological loss:

✓ Tropical rainforests have the greatest variety of plants on earth.

✓ Their loss is disastrous.
✓ For every type of plant that becomes extinct a wide variety of
other dependent organisms are also endangered.
✓ For every species of plant that becomes extinct, four species of
animal also die out, upsetting the balance of life on earth.

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Binomial nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature: (also called binominal nomenclature or binary

nomenclature) is a formal system of naming species of living things by
giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin
grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other
languages, Such a name is called a binomial name.

Notes:

✓ Binomial nomenclature means "two - part name" or "system of two

- part names".

for examble : (Zea maize, Vicia faba)

✓ The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species
belongs; the second part identifies the species within the genus.
✓ The formal introduction of this system of naming species is
credited to Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus, effectively
beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753.
✓ In modern usage, the first letter of the first part of the name, the
genus, is always capitalized in writing, while that of the second
part is not, even when derived from a noun such as the name of a
person or place.
✓ Similarly, both parts are italics when a binomial name occurs in
normal text. Thus the binomial name of the annual phlox (named
after botanist Thomas Drummond) is now written as Phlox
drummondii.

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Plant Classification
• In order to study the billions of different organisms living on Earth,
scientists have sorted and classified them based on their similarities
and differences.

• This system of classification is also called taxonomy and usually

features both English and Latin names for different divisions.

• It is always best to specify the exact plant you want by the

scientific name.

• It is also important for people in the commercial plant and nursery

business to know both scientific and common names as they
become confusing.

Theophrastus : (370-285 B.C):

• He was a Greek philosopher and naturalist and is often called the

"Father of Botany."

• He was a pupil of Aristotle and was the first person to publish a

classification of plants.

• Classified plants based on form :

✓ (Herbs, shrubs, trees).

✓ (Annuals, perennials, biennials).

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Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778:

• Linnaeus was the first person to propose an orderly system for

classifying organisms.

• He developed the Binomial System of Naming Plants in 1753

✓ Bi= 2

✓ Nomial= name

✓ All plants have a scientific name composed of two Latin

names known as a genus and specie

• His system is still used today and his called the Father of
Taxonomy.

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Plant Classification

Plant kingdom:

This kingdom has organisms that are multi-cellular, have cell walls and
chlorophyll, autotrophic, and don’t move from one place to another.

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✓ kingdom

✓ Phylum

✓ Class

✓ Order

✓ Family

✓ Genus

✓ Species

Plant Kingdom:

• Over 275,000 species

• All plants are included in one Kingdom (Plantae) which is then
broken down into smaller and smaller divisions based on several
characteristics, including:

✓ How they reproduce (by spores or different kinds of seeds)

✓ Their size or stature.

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Phylum:

Plants are divided in this category based on:

✓ produces seeds.

✓ Vascular or Non-Vascular plants

Non Vascular plants :plants that do not have tubes to carry water
up the plant or tubes to carry food made in the leaves down the
plant.

Vascular plants : Plants that have tubes to carry water up and food
down the plant.

Class:

Plants are divided into two types of classes

✓ Angiospermae (angiosperms)- plants which produce

flowers

✓ Gymnospermae (gymnosperms)- plants which don’t

produce flowers

• Subclass

▪ Dicotyledonae (dicotyledons/dicots)– plants with two seed

leaves

▪ Monocotyledonae (monocotyledons/monocot)- plants with

one seed leaf.

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Order:

• A group of related plant families, classified in the order in

which they are thought to have developed their differences
from a common ancestor.

✓ Vegetative Structures

✓ Reproductive Structures

• Names of orders end in ales

Family:

• Each order is divided into families

• These are plants with many botanical features in common.

✓ Vegetative and Reproductive Structures used.

• Related plants with similar flower parts are grouped

together.

• The Rose Family, Rosaceae, consists of plums, apples,

strawberries because they all have similar flower structures.

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• The names of families end in –aceae

Genus:

✓ his is the part of the plant name that is most familiar.

✓ This is the plants group name.

✓ All plants having the same generic name are said to belong
to the same Genus and have similar characteristics and are
closely related.

✓ The name of the Genus should be written with a capital

letter.

Species:

✓ This is the highest level that defines an individual plant.

✓ Often, the name will describe some aspect of the plant. The
color of the flowers, size or shape of the leaves, or it may be
named after the place where it was found.

✓ Together the Genus and species name refer to only one plant,
and they are used to identify that particular plant.

✓ The specie name is an adjective that describes the genus.

✓ Alba means white: Quercus alba= white oak

*Rubrum means red: Acer rubrum= red maple

✓ The name of the species should be written after the Genus

name, in small letters, with no capital letter.

Exemple of Classification:

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Category Scientific Name

Kingdom Plantae

Phylum Spermatophyte

Class Angiospermae

Sub-Class Monocotyledonae

Family Gramine

Genus Zea

Species Mays

Living organisms

What is life?

• Composed of one or more cells

• Possess inherited information (DNA)
• Reproduce
• Develop
• Respond to the environment
• Assimilate and use energy
• Maintain a relatively constant internal
• Environment (homeostasis)

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Notes:
• Prokaryotes: organisms whose cells lack a nucleus.

• Eukaryotes: organisms with cells that contain nuclei. Their

chemical instructions are in the nucleus.
• Nucleus : dense area in a cell that contains nucleic acids, the
chemical instructions that direct the cell’s activities.
• Nucleic acids are scattered throughout the cell( Bacteria).
• An autotrophus is an organism that uses solar energy or energy
from inorganic chemicals to make organic molecules.
• •A heterotrophus obtains organic molecules by consuming other
organisms or their products.

Kingdoms

Kingdom is the highest category in the

hierarchical classification of organisms created by Carolus Linnaeus
around 1750. Linnaeus recognized two kingdoms, plants and animals, a
scheme that worked reasonably well for large multicellular organisms but
failed as microscopes revealed diverse unicellular organisms. In
1959 Robert Whittaker devised a five-kingdom system that maintained
kingdoms Plantae and Animalia but added kingdoms Monera, Protista,
and Fungi. A five kingdom classification system on the basis of
following Three criteria:

1. Type of cell structure (prokaryotic or eukaryotic).

2. Number of cell in their bodies (unicellular or multicellular).
3. Mode of nutrition autotrophic (photosynthesis) and
heterotrophic (absorption and ingestion).

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The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, plantae and

Animalia.

1- Kingdom Monera (the kingdom of Prokoryotes) Ex: Eubacteria and

Archaebacteria.
2- Kingdom protista (the kingdom of aquatic Eukoryotes) diverse, not
fungi, plants or animals. Ex: Algae.
3- Kingdom fungi the Eukaryotes, multicellular (except yeasts),
4- Kingdom plantae – Eukaryotes, multicellular, non-motile,
autotrophic, cell wall containing cellulose Ex: Bryophytes,
pteridopyhytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.
5- Kingdom Animalia – Eukaryotes, multicellular, motile,

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Comparing plants with some other organisms:

Bacteria Algae Plants Fungi Animals
Character

[Link]: Eukaryotic: Eukaryotic: Eukaryotic:

Cell type single-called
single-called multicellular multicellular multicellular
but may formand
colonies multicellular
Cell wall doCell wall of Cell wall Cell wall
Cell wall not contain
some species composed composed No cell wall
cellulose contain mainly of mainly of
cellulose cellulose chitin
Mode of Various; some Photosynthetic Photosynthetic Heterotrophs Heterotrophs
nutrition photosynthetic autotrophs autotrophs that absorb that ingest
autotrophs food food
Sexual and Sexual and Mostly
asexual; some asexual; two sexual, some
species have adult forms: asexual;
Reproduction Mostly asexual two adult one that sexual and embryo
forms: one that produce spores asexual protected
produce spores and one that within female
and one that produce egg parent in
produce egg some species
including
most
mammals
Growth Indeterminate Indeterminate Indeterminate Indeterminate Determinate
or determinate or determinate or determinate

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The Cell and the cell Categories:

Attributes of cells:

A. Plasma membrane.

B. DNA.

C. Cytoplasm.

D. Obtain energy and nutrients from their environment.

Cell Size:

1–100µm

Cell types:

1. Prokaryotic: no nucleus, circular DNA, ribosomes

2. Eukaryotic: larger, nucleus, linear chromosomes, membranous

organelles.

Similarities: Both surrounded by plasma membrane, but very

different.

Prokaryotic Cells:

1. Have no membrane-bound organelles.

2. Include bacteria.

3. On earth 3.8 million years.

4. Found nearly everywhere.

✓ Spores in each breath; intestines.

✓ Naturally in soil, air, hot springs.

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Eukaryotic Cells:

1. Have numerous internal structures.

2. Various types & forms.

- Plants, animals, fungi, protists.

3. Unicellular, Multicellular organisms.

4. Nucleus is control center of the cell

5. Membrane bound (nuclear envelope).

Animal and plant cell :

Similarities:

1. Both constructed from eukaryotic cells.

2. Both contain similar organelles.

3. Both surrounded by cell membrane.

Differences :

Plants have

1. Cell wall – provides strength & rigidity

2. Have chloroplasts, photosynthetic.
3. Have central vacuole.

Animals have

1. Other organelle not found in plants (lysosomes formed

from Golgi)
2. Centrioles, important in cell division

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Eukaryotic cell structure:

[Link] wall: Protects the cell and gives it a rugged shape.

2. Cell Membrane: thin, flexible membrane that surrounds the cell,

controls what enters/leaves cell, provides support/protection. Lipid
bilayer–double-layered sheet of phospholipids and proteins.

3. Nucleus:

▪ Brain of the cell

▪ Office of the factory

▪ Contains nearly all the cell’s DNA and with it the coded
instructions for making PROTEINS and other important molecules

Contain on :

1. Nuclear envelope:

• Surrounds nucleus

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• Made of 2 membranes

• Dotted with thousands of nuclear pores

• Allow material to move in and out of nucleus by using “little

runners” such as proteins, RNA and other molecules.

2. Chromosomes: structures that contain genetic information that is

passed on from one generation to the next.

3. Nucleolus: Small dense region inside the nucleus

4. Endoplasmic reticulum: consists of folded membranes attached to the

nucleus.

o Lipids, proteins, and other products are made here.

o Rough ER – has ribosomes

o Smooth ER – no ribosomes

5. Ribosomes: assemble amino acid into polypeptide chains.

a. Associated with the ER.

b. Composed of RNA and proteins.

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6. Golgi apparatus: are membranous sacs associated with ER:

a. Processing and transport of proteins, lipids

b. Synthesis and transport of polysaccharides.

7. Lysosomes:

• are Golgi-derived vesicles containing digestive enzymes.

• Breaks down food and old organelles

8. Mitochondria: organelle that converts chemical energy stored in food

into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use.
“Powerhouse of the Cell!” (Respiration)

a. Membrane bound, numerous

b. Matrix/cristae

c. Have their own DNA and ribosomes; self-replicate

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9. Chloroplasts: function in photosynthesis.

1) Green—contain chlorophyll pigment

2) Stroma/grana (thylakoid stacks)

3) Have their own DNA and ribosomes; self-replicate

4) Up to 100 per cell.

10. Vacuoles:

1. The factory’s storage place

2. Sac-like organelles

3. Function: stores material such as water, salts, proteins, and

carbohydrates

4. Plant cells have a single, large central vacuole

▪ Pressure of central vacuole allows plants to support heavy

structures.

11. Centrioles:

• Only animal cells.

• Made of protein.

• Near nucleus.

• Help organize cell division.

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Centriole

12. Cytoskeleton: Internal infrastructure.

▪ Supporting structure and transportation system

• Network of protein filaments that helps the cell to maintain its

shape and to help the cell move

• 3 types of filaments : (Microtubules, Intermediate filament &

Microfilaments)

13. Surface structures:

⚫ Extensions of the plasma membrane.

⚫ Aid in movement of simple organisms.

Questions

Q. What two things does a plant cell have that an animal

cell does not?

1. Cell wall.

2. Chloroplasts.

3. Vacuoles.

Where photosynthesis takes place?

Chloroplasts.

Q. What are the differences between animal and plant cell ?

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Kingdom1: Monera
General Characteristics
➢ Most prokaryotes are microscopic, but what they lack in size they
make up for in numbers.
➢ Most heterotrophic; some autotrophic
➢ Most prokaryotes are unicellular, although some species form
colonies
➢ Prokaryotes are divided into two domains: bacteria and archaea
Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes are spheres (cocci),
rods (bacilli), spirals. Staph – in clusters and Strep – in chains

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Bacterial structure

1. Cell wall – maintains shape and form.

-Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a network of sugar
polymers cross-linked by polypeptides.

- Archaea contain polysaccharides and proteins but lack

peptidoglycan.

2. The cell wall may also be surrounded by an organized capsule

called a glycocalyx and/or by a loose jelly-like sheath called a
slime layer. In parasitic forms, these outer coverings protect the
cell from host defenses.
3. Cell Membrane – regulates what comes in and out of the cell
4. A polysaccharide or protein layer called a capsule covers many
prokaryotes
5. Flagella are used for movement.
6. Pilli (Fimbrae) help bacteria cling to surfaces.
7. Nucleoid region contains a circular loop of DNA.
8. Plasmids are rings of DNA, used in reproduction.
9. Ribosomes in cytoplasm synthesize proteins.

Prokaryotic Cell

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10..Endospores :many prokaryotes form metabolically inactive

endospores, which can remain viable in harsh conditions for
centuries.
There are two types of cell walls. Bacteria are grouped according to cell
wall type.

Bacteria Naming:

The Gram stain procedure (developed in 1880 by Hans Gram)

differentiates bacteria:
a. Gram-positive bacteria stain purple, whereas Gram-negative
bacteria stain pink.
b. This difference is dependent on the thick (Gram-positive) or thin
(Gram-negative) cell wall.

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The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism

Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to O2:

1- Obligate aerobes: Require oxygen

2- Facultative anaerobes: Can survive with or without oxygen

3- Obligate anaerobes: Are poisoned by oxygen

Reproduction in Prokaryotes

Binary fission is the splitting of a parent cell into two daughter cells; it is
asexual reproduction in prokaryotes.

Nitrogen Metabolism

Prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in a variety of ways

In nitrogen fixation, some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen

(N2) to ammonia (NH3)

Example: Rhizobium, which forms root nodules in legumes and fixes

atmospheric N2

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Prokaryotic (Monera) Nutrition:

A. Autotrophic (self-feeding):

1. Photoautotrophs: are photosynthetic and use light energy to

assemble the organic molecules they require.

2. Chemoautotrophs: make organic molecules by using energy

derived from the oxidation of inorganic compounds in the
environment. (methanogens)

B. Heterotrophic (feeds on other things):

Most free-living bacteria are chemoheterotrophs that take in pre-

formed organic nutrients, meaning they feed on other living or
decaying things.

Ecological impacts of prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes are links in the recycling of chemical elements
• Many prokaryotes are symbiotic (2 organisms living in direct
contact with each other).
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• Some bacteria can convert N2 into ammonia by the process of

nitrogen fixation
• Used in bioremediation (to remove pollutants from soil, air or
water)
• Some prokaryotes are human pathogens
Genetic recombination – sharing genes:

[Link]: occurs when a bacterium passes DNA to a second

bacterium through a tube (sex pilus) temporarily joins two cells; this
occurs only between bacteria in the same or closely related species.

[Link] : involves bacteria taking up free pieces of DNA

secreted by live bacteria or released by dead bacteria.

[Link]: bacteriophages
(types of viruses) transfer portions of
bacterial DNA from one cell to
another.

- Plasmids are separate pieces of

DNA that can replicate on their
own.
- They can carry genes for resistance
to antibiotics and transfer them
between bacteria by any of these
processes.

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Kingdom 2: Protista
General Characteristics

 Protista that are not animals, plants, or fungi

 Protista are eukaryotic having a distinct nucleus and organelles.

 Most protista are unicellular and multicellular.

 microscopic or very large

 Reproduce asexually and/or sexually

 Protista are generally divided into three groups based on how they
get their food:
Animal-like
• Protozoan means (proto = first, zoan = animal)
• Cells contain a nucleus.
• Cells lack a cell wall.
• Not animals because animals are multicellular and animal like
protista are unicellular
• They are heterotrophs.
• Most can move on their own.
• Example: Amoebae live in water or moist places.

Structure of Amoebae

• Have pseudopods (false foot) are used for movement and to

capture food.

• Contractile Vacuoles: controls amount of water inside

• Food Vacuole: where food is digested.

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• Amoebae reproduce by dividing into two new cells (binary fission)

Plantlike (Algae)

 Phycology = science that study of algae

 The algae are Thallophyta , Autotrophic contain of chloroplasts
(Contain pigments).
 Chlorophylls a, b, c, or d).
 They capture more of the sun’s energy and produce more oxygen
than all plants combined (photosynthesis)
 Unicellular and Multicellular
 Autotrophs
 Can move on their own
 Example: Nostoc, Chlorella, Diatoms and Laminaria

Types of algae according to size:

 Microalgae.
 Macroalgae: (Sea weeds, Sea grasses and Aquatic weeds)

Thallus Organization

Algae exhibit great diversity in organization of plant body.

• Unicellular Motile Non-motile

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• Colonial
• Coenobial
• Filamentous ,Simple Branched ,Dendroid
1- They are single celled algae. They may be motile flagellated.
example: Chlamydomonas. They may be non-motile coccoid.
example: Chlorella
2- The cells are grouped in aggregations called Colonies.
3- It is a colony with fixed number of cells. Example:16 cells in
Pandorina, 32 cells in Eudorina.
4- Filamentous types are multicellular. They may be simple or
unbranched. Example: spirogyra. They may be branched.
Branching is of 2 types: True branching. And False branching.
5- Dendroid means tree like. These appear like microscopic trees .

Classification of Algae: The different groups of algae can be classified

on the basis of a number of characteristics:

• Color.
• Type of chlorophyll.
• Type of photosynthetic food reserve (food storage substance).
• Flagella type.
• Cell wall structure.
6Groups of algae

1. Euglenophyta: Unicellular - Live in fresh water - Autotrophic -

Flagella Ex : Euglena
2. Cyanophyta: Blue-green or Cyanobacteria Ex : Nostoc &
Anabaena
3. Chlorophyta: green algae and have chlorophyll A and B -
Unicellular non motile (Chlorella) or motile (Chlamydomonas)

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4. Chrysophyta: Unicellular - have Chlorophyll A and xanthophylls

Ex : Diatoms
5. Phaeophyta: Brown Algae - Commonly called seaweed - Attach
to rocks – multicellular Ex : Laminaria
6. Rhodophyta: Red algae - Multicellular - Used as food in Asia Ex
: Polysiphonia

Asexual Reproduction includes:

a) In unicellular algae: simple cell division some time called

binary fission.

b)In multicellular: (colonies, filamentous, thallus, etc) by:

1. Fragmentation.

2. Hormogonia: A small, motile filament that detaches and

grows by cell division into a new filament such as Oscillatoria.

sexual reproduction:

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a) Sexual reproduction takes place by the union of male and

female gametes by the conjugation method.

Commercial uses of algae

• Algin – a thickening agent for food processing (brown algae)

• Carrageenan – foods, puddings, ice cream, toothpaste (red algae)
• Iodine (brown algae)
• Agar – for growth media used in research (red algae)
• As food – red and brown algae. Some Algae species have proteins,
vitamins (A, B, C and E), lipids, and minerals.
• As plant fertilizers, fix the atmospheric nitrogen.
• Diatomaceous earth: used for filtering water, insulating,
soundproofing
• Antibiotics
• Algae as fodder for cattle

Fungus-like Protists

 Heterotrophs.
 Have cell walls.
 Two types: Slime Molds, Water Molds
 Reproduce with Spores (tiny cell that is able to grow into a new
organism)

Ecological Importance of Protista:

• Important foundation in food chain

• Produce a lot of Oxygen

• Decomposition

• Symbiotic relationships

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• Mutuality

• Parasitic.

• Medicinal and Industrial Uses.

Kingdom 3: Fungi

Some fungi characteristics

• Fungi (singular Fungus) or Mycophyta.

• Eukaryotic – Multicellular

• Heterotrophic (saprophytes or parasites or symbioses).

• Body of almost all fungi is a mycelium, an interwoven mass of
threadlike filaments called hyphae (singular, hypha)
• Chitin cell walls
• Hyphae of most species are divided into many cells by partitions
called septa (singular, septum); each cell possesses one or more
nuclei - Pores in the septa allow cytoplasm to stream from one cell
to the next
• Coenocytic fungi lack septa

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Fungal Reproduction

1) Asexual:

• Fragmentation.

• Asexual spore formation.

– Haploid mycelium produces haploid asexual spores by

mitosis.

– Spores germinate and develop into a new mycelium

by mitosis.

2) Sexual:

1. Mating types come into contact with each other

2. The two different hyphae fuse so that the nuclei share a
common cell
3. The different haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid
zygote.
4. Zygote undergoes meiosis to form haploid sexual spores.

Classification of Fungi

Fungi have been assigned to four phyla based upon the way they produce
sexual spores

• Chytridiomycota (chytrids) Most are aquatic Ex : Allomyces

• Zygomycota (zygote fungi) Sexual spores are thick-walled
zygospores are produced in black spore cases called sporangia Ex
: Rhizopus - mucor
• Ascomycota (sac fungi) Sexual spores (Ascspores ) form in
saclike asci. Ex: Penicillium, Yeast.

• Basidiomycota (club fungi) Sexual spores (Basidiospores) form in

club-shaped basidia

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Better known examples include Mushrooms (some are edible,

others are poisonous)

Relationships in fungi
1. Decomposers
2. Parasitic (On plants or On animals).
3. Mutualistic (Lichens / Mycorrhizae) .
• Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi (usually an
ascomycete) and algae.
• Mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) are symbiotic associations
between fungi and plant roots. Mycorrhizae Enhance Plant Growth
Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi: Some unique fungi
have specialized hyphae called haustoria that allow them to
penetrate the tissues of their host.

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Fungus provides
photosynthetic partner (algae (
with shelter and protection Lichens
are symbiotic
associations
between fungi
(usually an
ascomycete)
and algae
Photosynthetic partner (
algae ) provides fungus with
food (sugar)

Fungus provides plant Mycorrhizae

with water, minerals, and (singular,
organic nutrients it
absorbs from the soil
mycorrhiza) are
symbiotic
associations
between fungi and
plant roots
Plant provides fungus Mycorrhizae
with food (sugar) Enhance Plant
Growth

—
— Ecological Importance of Fungi

1- Penicillin ; First antibiotic to be discovered

2- Certain ascomycete molds impart flavor to some of the
world’s most famous cheeses Example: Roquefort
3- Yeasts are used in the production of wine and bread
4- Some fungi are consumed directly Example:Mushrooms

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Kingdom 4: Animalia

 Multicellular - eukaryotes - Heterotrophs

I. Invertebrates
 99% of the Animal Kingdom
 Absence of backbone
 Includes sponges, worms
II. Vertebrates
 Internal skeleton (bone or cartilage)
 Includes fish, reptiles, birds.

Viruses

Viruses Characteristics

1) They are not cells

2) They are microscopic, as in Monera kingdom, but they are not
Moneras
3) They are extremely small (only can be seen through an electron
microscope)
4) They are unable to move
5) They cannot carry out any vital funtion by themselves, so they
infect living cells to carry out the reproduction (obligate
parasites).
6) 1st virus discovered-Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

Parts of a virus

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Types and shapes

1- Helical:——Rod like with capsid proteins winding around the core in a

spiral. Ex: Tobacco Mosaic Virus
2- Polyhedral : Has many sides and most polyhedral capsids have 20
sides and 12 corners Ex : Adenovirus
3- Binal : Polyhedral capsid attached to a helical tail Ex :
Bacteriophages

Viral Reproduction

1. Attachment
2. Entry
3. Replication
4. Assembly
5. Release (lyses the cell)

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Viruses Enter Living Cells

Viruses enter bacterial cells by punching a hole in the cells wall and
injecting its DNA Ex: Bacteriophages.

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Kingdom5: Plant

Some Characteristics:

 Organisms within kingdom plant are multicellular, eukaryotic and

autotrophic.

 Plant produce food via photosynthesis and have cell wall composed
of cellulose.

 Plants are divided into the four main groups based on two major
Characteristics: (Presence or absence of Vascular tissue and seeds).

 Vascular tissue transport substances such as water, minerals and

sugar throughout the plant.

 Seeds are structures that contain an embryo, stored food and outer
coat.

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1. Bryophytes: (Non flowering plants)

General Characteristics:

• No vascular tissues.
• They are small land plants.
• They do not have true Roots,
Leaves, or Stems
• Have rhizoids for anchorage.
• They require Water for Fertilization.
• EX: Riccia
The life cycle of Bryophytes
✓ A typical moss alternates between Gametophyte and Sporophyte
Phases.
✓ A gametophyte is the haploid (N) generation that produces gametes
and the largest and longest-lived generation of the moss life cycle.
The gametophytes are the photosynthetic part of a moss.
Gametophytes of mosses have rhizoids, slender, rootlike structures
that anchors the moss in place.
✓ The sporophyte is the diploid (2N) that produces spores by meiosis.
The sporophyte of a moss is usually smaller than the gametophyte.
sporophytes lack chlorophyll; they depend on the photosynthetic
gametophyte for food. The sporophyte consists of a foot that anchors
it to the gametophyte and a stalk. The stalk grows up from the foot
and resembles a street lamp. A top the long, slender stalk is a
capsule. A capsule is the structure of a moss that forms haploid
spores.

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Sexual reproduction:
1. Mosses, like most sexually reproducing organisms, produce two kinds
of gametes: eggs and sperm.
2. Eggs of mosses are large, contain much cytoplasm, and cannot move.
3. Sperm are smaller and have flagella, enabling them to reach the egg
by swimming through water.
4. The egg producing organ of a moss is called an archegonium. Each
flask-shaped archegonium Forms one egg.
5. The sperm producing organ of a moss is called an antheridium. Each
antheridium produces many sperm.
6. Both the archegonia and antheridia are part of the gametophyte.
7. Bryophytes such as mosses are sometimes called The "Amphibians
of the Plant Kingdom".
8. Fertilization produces a zygote that undergoes mitosis and becomes a
sporophyte
9. When the sporophyte matures cells inside the capsule undergoes
meiosis and form haploid spores.
[Link] spores are mature, the capsule opens and spores are carried off
by wind. If a spore lands in a moist place, it sprouts and forms a new
gametophyte.

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2- Pteridophyta

• Ferns are plants with leaves, roots, and stems.

• Feathery leaves known as fronds & underground stems called
rhizomes.
• Have vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
• They do not have flowers (Non flowering plants)
• Pteridophytes do not have seeds, reproduce via spores.
• Spore-producing organ on the underside of leaves (reproduction).
• Damp & shady
places.
• E.g : Adiantum

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The life cycle of ferns:

• All pteridophytes have a true alternation of generations, in which a

dominant sporophyte generation produces spores through meiosis,
and a free-living gametophyte generation forms gametes (egg and
sperm).
• Spores that are wind-borne to shady, moist habitats germinate and
yield multicellular, but microscopic, gametophytes, the sexual stage
of the life cycle. These short-lived, delicate plants mature and
produce egg-by archegonia and antheridia which produce sperm.
When water is present, multi-flagellated sperm swim from mature
antheridia, are chemically attracted to the necks of the archegonia,
and fertilize the eggs.
• In most cases the sperm produced by a gametophyte cannot
successfully fertilize its own eggs and must swim to archegonia on
neighboring, genetically different gametophytes. The diploid
zygotes, produced by the fusion of haploid egg and sperm, divide
mitotically and differentiate into mature sporophytes, completing the
life cycle.

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Fig. Life cycle of Pteridophyta

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3- Gymnosperms

Characteristics of Gymnosperms:

• Tall evergreen trees

• Roots, woody stems, needle-shaped leaves
• Vascular tissues (transport)
• Cones with reproductive structures (Seeds enclosed in cones)
• Male cones: produce pollen & female cones: produce eggs
• Naked seeds in female cones
• E.g: Pinus

Gymnosperm life cycle:

1. Male and female seed cones grow on adult sporophytes

2. Pollen (male gametophyte) “spread by wind and animals” released
from the male cones. “wing” helps seeds
3. Female eggs become fertilized spread greater distance

4. Zygote created inside the female

cones
5. Seeds often spread by wind
6. Seed will land
7. Seedling grows into (sporophyte)…the cycle repeats.

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4- Angiosperms

Angiosperms are the largest group of plants on Earth. There are

approximately 270,000 known species
alive today. Angiosperms include all
plants that have flowers and seeds.
Characteristics of Angiosperms:
• Vascular tissues (transport)
• Flowers, fruits (contain seeds)
• Ovule enclosed in carpel

• All angiosperms have flowers at

some stage in their life. The flowers serve as the reproductive

• Angiosperms have small pollen grains that spread genetic

information from flower to flower. These grains are much smaller
than the gametophytes, or reproductive cells, used by non-
flowering plants. This small size allows the process of fertilization

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to occur quicker in the flowers of angiosperms and makes them

more efficient at reproducing.

• All angiosperms have stamens. Stamens are the reproductive

structures found in flowers that produce the pollen grains that
carry the male genetic information.

• Angiosperms have much smaller female reproductive parts than

non-flowering plants, allowing them to produce seeds more
quickly.

• Angiosperms have carpel that encloses developing seeds that may

turn into a fruit.

• A great advantage for angiosperms is the production of

endosperm. Endosperm is a material that forms after fertilization
and serves as a highly nutritional food source for the developing
seed and seedling.

• Eggs are produced in the ovary, along with two polar nuclei per
egg.

• Sperm is produced and packaged in the anther (2 sperm cells per

pollen grain) honey bee pollination.

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Flower

Angiosperms life cycle:

Pollination:
p
• The pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the
flower anthers to the stigma (by wind, water or animal).

The pollen grains are small cells that formed in the anther inside the
pollen chamber, when those grains become mature, the anther splits
longitudinally and the pollen grains spread in the air like the dust.

Fertilization:

• When pollen is accepted by the stigma, a pollen tube grows down

the style and into the ovary.
• Both sperm cells from the pollen grain travel down the pollen tube
to the ovary. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg to form the zygote
(The sperm and egg each contain half of the genetic material
needed to form a new plant. When they combine, the sexual union

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is complete and the egg is fertilized) which develops into the

embryo then will develop into a plant seed.

Life cycle of flowering plants

From ovary to fruit:

• The ovary of the flower contains the ovules.

• As fertilized ovules develop into seeds, the ovary wall develops
into the fruit.
• In science, the term “fruit” refers to a mature ovary that
contains seeds.
• A fruit’s function is to disperse the seed by: wind, animals
(eaten, stuck to fur) and water.

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Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process a plant uses to make food and grow . Plants
use sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Glucose is a
kind of sugar .

Photosynthetic Reactions——
Chl
6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2.

• C= Carbon
• O= Oxygen
• H = Hydrogen
• Chl. = Chlorophyll

Where does photosynthesis occur——?

• Most photosynthesis occurs in the leaves of plants (stoma and

mesophyll cells(
• Occurs in organelles called chloroplasts .
• Plants are green because green color comes from chlorophyll in
the chloroplasts
Leaf Structure

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General Botany 1

Four factors affect photosynthesis——:

1. Light – if there is more light

photosynthesis happens faster.
2. Water - if there is not enough water
photosynthesis slows down.
3. Temperature – the best temperature is
about 30C0 – anything above 40C0 will
slow photosynthesis right down.
4. CO2——-—— —if there is more carbon dioxide
photosynthesis will happen quicker.

Photosynthesis Stages——

1. Light Reactions——
• Light reactions are the “photo” part of photosynthesis. Light is
absorbed by pigments .
• Occur in\on the Grana
• Energy storage molecules are formed. (ATP and NADPH (

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General Botany 1

2. Dark Reactions——
• Dark reactions are the “synthesis” part of photosynthesis, also
called Calvin Cycle
• Do not Need Light to Occur
• Occur in the Stroma

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General Botany 1

Respiration

Respiration are process of oxidizing food to release energy inside cells

Occurs in Mitochondria of Cells

If oxygen is present (Aerobic Respiration(

—3Main Respiration Steps——

• Glycolysis : Breakdown of Glucose to a 3-Carbon Compound

Called Pyruvate and occurs in Cytosol
• The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) occurs in the matrix .
• Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation occur
deep in the cristae .
If oxygen is not present (anaerobic respiration(

pyruvate is used in fermentation .

• Lactate formation occurs in animal, bacteria, fungi, and protist

cells .
• Alcohol fermentation occurs in yeast and plant cells
Glucose + Oxygen → 2 Ethanol + 2 Water + 2 ATP

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General Botany 1

Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants .

What is this process called? Stomatal Transpiration

• Guard cells: cells that open and close the stoma

• Stomata: (leaf openings) naturally allow water to evaporate out .

Factors influencing stomatal aperture —

1. Light : Stomata of most plant open in the day and close at

night
2. Temp. : Stomata aperture increase with Temp, within 20-
30(the optimal).
3. CO2: Low CO2 conc. promotes stomata opening, while high
CO2 conc. inhibits stomata opening
4. Water content: Stomata open when the leaf contains enough
water. When there is a water shortage, they close .
5. Plant hormone: CTK promotes opening -ABA inhibits.
Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration—

1. Light: Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the

dark .

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2. Temperature : Plants transpire more rapidly at higher

temperatures
3. Humidity : When the surrounding air is dry ,
4. Wind: When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried
away and replaced by drier air .
5. Soil water : A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its
water loss is not made up by replacement from the soil .

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Introduction to Genetics

-Branch of biology which study of heredity traits and variation of

organisms is called Genetics .

-GregorMendel Pea Plant Experimen

Alleles: two genes that occupy the same position on homologous

chromosomes and that cover the

same trait .

-Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive .

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The structure of DNA and RNA—:

Genetic material of living organisms is either DNA or RNA .

-DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid

-RNA – Ribonucleic acid

-Both DNA and RNA are polynucleotides

-They are made up of smaller molecules called nucleotides

-DNA is made of two polynucleotide strands

Nucleotide- Nucleotide- Nucleotide-Nucleotide- Nucleotide-

Nucleotide
Nucleotide- Nucleotide- Nucleotide-Nucleotide- Nucleotide-
Nucleotide
-RNA is made of a single polynucleotide strand

Nucleotide- Nucleotide- Nucleotide-Nucleotide- Nucleotide-

Nucleotide

Structure of a nucleotide——

A nucleotide is made of 3 components

1. A Pentose sugar——
–This is a 5 carbon sugar

–The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose

-The sugar in RNA is ribose

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2. A Phosphate group—

Phosphate groups are important because they link the sugar on one
nucleotide onto the phosphate of the next nucleotide to make a
polynucleotide .

3. A Nitogenous base——

Two types :

1. Pyramidines (Thymine– T, Cytosine C, uracil U(

2. Purines (Adenine A and Guanine G(

In DNA the four bases are—Thymine - Adenine – Cytosine - Guanine

In RNA the four bases are Uracil - Adenine – Cytosine - Guanine

Sugar phosphate bonds (backbone of DNA—(

Nucleotides are connected to each other via the phosphate on one

nucleotide and the sugar on the

next nucleotide .

— ●A Polynucleotide

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General Botany 1

James Watson (L) and Francis Crick (R), and the model they built of
the structure of DNA .

Base pairing:

The Nitrogenous Bases pair up with other bases. For example the bases of
one strand of DNA base pair with the bases on the opposite strand of the
DNA.

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— Complementary base pairing:

— Pyramidines Purines

— Thymine Adenine

— Uracil Adenine

— Cytosine Guanine

- One purine and one pyramide base between the two polynucleotide
strands of DNA.

A chromosome carry the hereditary information (genes)

- Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA

Consist of DNA molecule + protein (histones)

Humans contain 46 such molecules (23 pairs)

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General Botany 1

44,somatic chromosomes(sex chromosomes (X +Y2

Genes distinct regions on the chromosome

Each gene codes for a protein product -

DNA -> RNA-> protein-

- Differences in proteins brings about differences between individuals and

species.

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