Dr. Tadahmun Ahmed Yassen ‫ تضامن احمد ياسين‬.

‫د‬

Chapter two
2.1 The general conduction equation
Consider the one-dimensional system shown in Figure 1-6. If the system is in a steady
state, i.e., if the temperature does not change with time, then the problem is a simple
one, and we need only integrate Equation (1-1) and substitute the appropriate values
to solve for the desired quantity. However, if the temperature of the solid is changing
with time, or if there are heat sources or sinks within the solid, the situation is more
complex. We consider the general case where the temperature may be changing with
time and heat sources may be present within the body. For the element of thickness
dx, the following energy balance may be made:

Energy conducted in left face + heat generated within element = change in internal
energy + energy conducted out right face These energy quantities are given as
follows:

Energy in left face=

Energy generated within element= ̇

Figure 1-6 Elemental volume for one-dimensional heatconduction analysis.

Change in internal energy=

Energy out right face = +

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* ( ) +

̇ * ( ) +

or

( ) ̇ 1.8

This is the one-dimensional heat-conduction equation. To treat more than one-

dimensional heat flow, we need consider only the heat conducted in and out of a unit
volume in all three coordinate directions, as shown in Figure 1-7a. The energy
balance yields

And the energy quantities are given by

* ( ) +

* ( ) +

* ( ) +

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Figure 1.7 Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat-conduction analysis: (a) cartesian
coordinates; (b) cylindrical coordinates; (c) spherical coordinates.

So that the general three-dimensional heat-conduction equation is

( ) ( ) ( ) ̇ 1.9

For constant thermal conductivity, Equation (1.9) is written

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̇
1.9a

Where:

:is the thermal difusivity of material, m2/s.

The larger the value of α, the faster heat will diffuse through the material. This may
be seen by examining the quantities that make up α. A high value of α could result
either from a high value of thermal conductivity, which would indicate a rapid
energy-transfer rate, or from a low value of the thermal heat capacity ρc. A low value
of the heat capacity would mean that less of the energy moving through the material
would be absorbed and used to raise the temperature ofthe material; thus more energy
would be available for further transfer. Thermal diffusivity α has units of square
meters per second.

Equation (1.9a) may be transformed into either cylindrical or spherical coordinates by

standard calculus techniques. The results are as follows:

Cylindrical coordinates: see figure 1.9b

( ) ( ) ( ) ̇ 1.9b

For constant thermal conductivity,

̇

Spherical coordinates: see figure 1.9c

( ) ( ) ( ) ̇ 1.9c

For constant thermal conductivity,

̇
( )

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Many practical problems involve only special cases of the general equations listed
above. As a guide to the developments in future chapters, it is worthwhile to show the
reduced form of the general equations for several cases of practical interest.

Steady-state one-dimensional heat flow (no heat generation):

1.10

Steady-state one-dimensional heat flow in cylindrical coordinates (no heat

generation):

1.11

Steady-state one-dimensional heat flow with heat sources:

1.12

Two-dimensional steady-state conduction without heat sources:

1.13

Example: A 1 m thickness wall made from a material (cp=4000J/kg.k, ρ=1600 kg/m3,

k=40 W/m.k). Temperature distribution is given by , a=900˚C,
2 2 3
b=-300 ˚C/m, c=-50 ˚C/m , A=10 m , ̇ =1000 W/m .

Determine:

1. Rate of heat transfer entering and leaving the wall.

2. Rate of storing energy within the wall.
3. Rate of change of temperature at x=0.25 m and x=0.5 m.

Solution:

Known: Temperature distribution T(x) at an instant of time t in a one-dimensional

wall with uniform heat generation.

1. Recall that once the temperature distribution is known for a medium, it is a

simple matter to determine the conduction heat transfer rate at any point in the
medium, or at its surfaces, by using Fourier’s law. Hence the desired heat rates
may be determined by using the prescribed temperature distribution with Equation
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2.1. Accordingly,

1. Recall that once the temperature distribution is known for a medium, it is a simple
matter to determine the conduction heat transfer rate at any point in the medium, or at
its surfaces, by using Fourier’s law.

[Link] energy balance on the wall:

[Link] time rate of change of the temperature at any point in the medium may be
determined from the heat equation,

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( )

2.2 Study state conduction in one dimension:

2.2.1 The Plane Wall

a. temperature distribution

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FIGURE 2.1 Heat transfer through a plane wall. (a) Temperature distribution. (b)
Equivalent thermal circuit.

Assumption:

Temperature varies with x-direction only no heat generation. So, the general equation
is reduces to:

First integration:

Second integration:

2.1

this is the general solution

and are constant of integration.

Boundary condition:

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Substitute in general solution:

2.2

the heat transfer rate:

2.3

b. Thermal resistance

The thermal resistance for conduction is:

2.4

The thermal resistance for convection is:

2.5

Circuit representations provide a useful tool for both conceptualizing and quantifying
heat transfer problems. The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with
convection surface conditions is shown in Figure 2.1b. The heat transfer rate may be
determined from separate consideration of each element in the network. Since qx is
constant throughout the network, it follows that

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2.1.2 The Composite Wall:

a. Material in series:

Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex systems, such as
composite walls. Such walls may involve any number of series and parallel
thermalresistances due to layers of different materials. Consider the series composite
wall of Figure 2.2. The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may be
expressed as

FIGURE 2.2 Equivalent thermal circuit for a series composite wall.

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*Overall heat transfer coefficient

With composite systems it is often convenient to work with an overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, which is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s law of
cooling. Accordingly,

Or

That means:

b. Material in parallel:
𝑇 𝑇

1
𝑞

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𝑥

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* + * +

Where:

: Equavelant resistance.

Example 2.1: Find the heat transfer per unit area through the composite wall in
Figure below. Assume one-dimensional heat flow.

Solution:

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H.W CH2:1,2,3,4

H.W PLANE WALL CH2

2-1 A wall 2 cm thick is to be constructed from material that has an average thermal conductivity of 1.3
W/m・ ◦C. The wall is to be insulated with material having an average thermal conductivity of
0.35W/m・ ◦C, so that the heat loss per square meter will not exceed 1830W. Assuming that the inner
and outer surface temperatures of the insulated wall are 1300 and 30◦C, calculate the thickness of
insulation required.

2-2 A certain material 2.5 cm thick, with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 m2, has one side maintained at 35
◦C and the other at 95◦C. The temperature at the center plane of the material is 62◦C, and the heat flow
through the material is 1 kW. Obtain an expression for the thermal conductivity of the material as a
function of temperature.

2-3 A composite wall is formed of a 2.5-cm copper plate, a 3.2-mm layer of asbestos, and a 5-cm layer
of fiberglass. The wall is subjected to an overall temperature difference of 560 ◦C. Calculate the heat
flow per unit area through the composite structure.

2-5 One side of a copper block 5 cm thick is maintained at 250◦C. The other side is covered with a
layer of fiberglass 2.5 cm thick. The outside of the fiberglass is maintained at 35 ◦C, and the total heat
flow through the copper-fiberglass combination is 52 kW. What is the area of the slab?

2-6 An outside wall for a building consists of a 10-cm layer of common brick and a 2.5-cm layer of
fiberglass [k =0.05 W/m・ ◦C]. Calculate the heat flow through the wall for a 25◦C temperature
differential.

2-7 One side of a copper block 4 cm thick is maintained at 175◦C. The other side is covered with a
layer of fiberglass 1.5 cm thick. The outside of the fiberglass is maintained at 80 ◦C, and the total heat
flow through the composite slab is 300 W. What is the area of the slab?

2-8 A plane wall is constructed of a material having a thermal conductivity that varies as the square of
the temperature according to the relation k =k0(1+βT 2). Derive an expression for the heat transfer in
such a wall.

2.2.2 Radial system

a. Cylindrical
Consider a long cylinder of inside radius ri, outside radius ro, and length L, such as
the one shown in Figure 2-3. We expose this cylinder to a temperature differential
Ti − To and ask what the heat flow will be. For a cylinder with length very large
compared to diameter, it may be assumed that the heat flows only in a radial direction,
so that the only space coordinate needed to specify the system is r.

The general conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate:

2.6

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Assumptions:

 steady state.
 One dimension with radius only.
 No heat generation.

Equation 2.6 will reduced to:

( ) 2.7

We may determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder by solving Equation

2.7 and applying appropriate boundary conditions. Assuming the value of k to be
constant, Equation 2.7 may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution

FIGURE 2-3: Hollow cylinder with convective surface conditions.

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we introduce the following boundary
conditions:

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Applying these conditions to the general solution, we then obtain

Solving for C1 and C2

( ⁄ )

and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain

2.8
The rate at which energy is conducted across any cylindrical surface in the solid may
be expressed as

2.9

2.10

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the
thermal resistance is of the form

K/W, ˚C/W 2.11

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2.2.3 Composite Cylinder Wall

FIGURE 2-4: Temperature distribution for a composite cylindrical wall.

Consider now the composite system of Figure 2.4. Recalling how we treated the
composite plane wall and neglecting the interfacial contact resistances, the heat
transfer rate may be expressed as

2.12

2.2.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer
coefficient. That is,

2.13

If U is defined in terms of the inside area, , Equations 2.12 and 2.13

may be equated to yield

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2.14

This definition is arbitrary, and the overall coefficient may also be defined in
terms of A4 or any of the intermediate areas. Note that

2.15

Example 2.2:

Water flows at 50◦C inside a 2.5-cm-inside-diameter tube such that h1 = 3500

W/m2 · ˚C. The tube has a wall thickness of 0.8 mm with a thermal conductivity
of 16 W/m · ˚C. The outside of the tube loses heat by free convection with h2 =
7.6 W/m2 · ˚C. Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient and heat loss per unit
length to surrounding air at 20◦C.

Solution

There are three resistances in series for this problem, with L = 1.0 m, d1= 0.025 m,
and d2 = 0.025 + (2)(0.0008) = 0.0266 m, the resistances may be calculated as:

˚C/W.

˚C/W.

˚C/W.

( ) ( )

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Example 2.3:

The heat flow is given by

H.W conduction in cylinder

2-31 A5-cm-diameter steel pipe is covered with a 1-cm layer of insulating material having k = 0.22
W/m.˚C followed by a 3-cm-thick layer of another insulating material having k = 0.06 W/m.˚C. The
entire assembly is exposed to a convection surrounding condition of h = 60 W/m2.˚C and T∞ =15˚C.
The outside surface temperature of the steel pipe is 400˚C. Calculate the heat lost by the pipe-insulation
assembly for a pipe length of 20 m. Express in Watts.

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2-56 Water flows on the inside of a steel pipe with an ID of 2.5 cm. The wall thickness is 2 mm, and
the convection coefficient on the inside is 500 W/m2.˚C. The convection coefficient on the outside is 12
W/m2.˚C. Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient.

2.2.5 Critical Thickness of Insulation

Let us consider a layer of insulation which might be installed around a circular

pipe, as shown in Figure 2-5. The inner temperature of the insulation is fixed at Ti,
and the outer surface is exposed to a convection environment at T∞. From the
thermal network the heat transfer is

Figure 2-5 Critical insulation thickness.

2.16
max

Now let us manipulate this expression to determine the outer radius of insulation
ro, which will maximize the heat transfer. The maximization condition is

which gives the result

2.17

Equation (2.17) expresses the critical-radius-of-insulation concept. If the outer

radius is less than the value given by this equation, then the heat transfer will be
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increased by adding more insulation. For outer radii greater than the critical value
an increase in insulation thickness will cause a decrease in heat transfer.

Example 2.4:

Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos [k = 0.17 W/m · ◦C]
surrounding a pipe and exposed to room air at 20◦C with h = 3.0 W/m2 · ◦C.
Calculate the heat loss from a 200◦C, 5.0-cm-diameter pipe when covered with the
critical radius of insulation and without insulation.

Solution:

From Equation (2-17) we calculate ro as

The inside radius of the insulation is 5.0/2 = 2.5 cm, so the heat transfer is
calculated from Equation (2.16) as

Without insulation the convection from the outer surface of the pipe is

So, the addition of 3.17 cm (5.67 − 2.5) of insulation actually increases the heat
transfer by 25 percent. As an alternative, fiberglass having a thermal conductivity
of 0.04 W/m · ◦C might be employed as the insulation material. Then, the critical
radius would be

Now, the value of the critical radius is less than the outside radius of the pipe (2.5
cm), so addition of any fiberglass insulation would cause a decrease in the heat
transfer.

b. Spherical

Figure 2.6 show a hollow sphere of radius R1 at Ts,1 and R2 at Ts,2. For sphere
the heat equation is gives by equation 1.9c

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Assumption:

 One dimension heat flow r-direction.

 Steady state.
 No heat generation.

For the control volume in the figure energy conservation required that

The appropriate form of Fouries low is

The general heat equation reduced to

( )

( )

First integration:

Figure 2.6: conduction in spherical shell

Second integration:

..........a

B.C: at

at
apply B.C in equation a

..........b

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.............c

Solve equation b and c we get:

Sub. in equation a, for temperature distribution:

( )

2.3 Conduction with thermal energy generation:

2.3.1 Plane wall with heat generation:

To investigate the effect of uniform internal heat generation in one dimension

temperature distribution within the plane wall. Figure 2.7 shows the plane wall with
internal uniform heat generation, ̇ .

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Figure 2.7 Conduction in a plane wall with uniform heat generation with Symmetrical
boundary conditions.

The general conduction equation is:

For study, one dimension:

First integration gives:

̇

Second integration gives:

̇
................a

B.C: at : at

Apply B.C to equation a:

̇
.........b

̇
...........c

So:
̇
and

Sub. & in equation a gives:

̇
( ) ..........d if B.C symmtr

This is a parabolic temperature distribution that is symmetry about x=0

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Thus at x=0,

And the maximum temperature axis at x=0

̇
.........e

From equation d
̇
( *

Sub. In equation e we get:

Join all para.

in case the temperature distribution is asymmetrical as shown in Figure 2.8 the

temperature distribution is as below:

Figure 2.8: Conduction in a plane wall with uniform heat generation with
Asymmetrical boundary conditions.

2.3.2 Cylinder with heat generation:

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Heat generation may occur in a variety of radial geometries. Consider the long, solid
cylinder of Figure 2.9, which could represent a current-carrying wire or a fuel
element in a nuclear reactor. For steady-state conditions the rate at which heat is
generated within the cylinder must equal the rate at which heat is convected from the
surface of the cylinder to a moving fluid. This condition allows the surface
temperature to be maintained at a fixed value of Ts.

FIGURE 2.9 Conduction in a solid cylinder with uniform heat generation.

To determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder, we begin with the

appropriate form of the heat equation.

For constant thermal conductivity k, the heat conduction Equation reduces to:

̇
( )

Separating variables and assuming uniform generation, this expression may be

integrated to obtain

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̇
/r

Repeating the procedure, the general solution for the temperature distribution
becomes
̇
.........a

To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we apply the boundary conditions

Therefore:

The temperature distribution is therefore

̇
( ) ...........b

Sub in equation

̇
..............c

Divided equation (b) to equation (c) we obtained

( )

From equation (b)

̇

̇
(heat conduction in the radius direction)

̇ .........d
q=q.*V
̇

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To relate the surface temperature, , to the temperature of the cold fluid, , either a
surface energy balance or an overall energy balance may be used.

̇
̇

H.W a similar analysis applies to a hollow cylinder as shown in the figure below:

Boundary condition: at

Example:

A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless-steel wire [k = 19 W/m · ◦C] 3 mm in

diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70 μΩ · cm, and the length of
the wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a liquid at 110 ◦C and experiences a
convection heat-transfer coefficient of 4kW/m2 · ◦C. Calculate the center temperature
of the wire.

Solution:

All the power generated in the wire must be dissipated by convection to the liquid:

..........a

The resistance of the wire is calculated from

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where ρ is the resistivity of the wire. The surface area of the wire is πdL, so from
Equation (a)

=215˚C.

The heat generated per unit volume ̇ is calculated from

̇ ̇

So that,

Finally, the center temperature of the wire is calculated from Equation below:
̇

2.3.3 sphere with heat generation

The general heat conduction equation

For one dimension (r direction only) study state the general equation has been reduced
to:

̇
( *

Boundary condition: at

̇
( )

First integration gives:

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Second integration gives:

̇

H.W find the temperature distribution and heat transfer.

Q1: Air flows at 120◦C in a thin-wall stainless-steel tube with h=65 W/m2
・ ◦C. The inside diameter of the tube is 2.5 cm and the wall thickness is
0.4 mm. k =18 W/m・ ◦C for the steel. The tube is exposed to an
environment with h=6.5 W/m2 ・ ◦C and T∞ =15◦C. Calculate the overall
heat-transfer coefficient and the heat loss per meter of length.

Solution:

Q2: An insulating glass window is constructed of two 5-mm glass plates

separated by an air layer having a thickness of 4 mm. The air layer may
be considered stagnant so that pure conduction is involved. The
convection coefficients for the inner and outer surfaces are 12 and 50
W/m2 . ◦C, respectively. Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient for
this arrangement. Assume thermal conductivity of glass equal to 0.78
W/m .◦C, and for air 0.026 W/m2 .◦C

Solution:

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Q3: A wall consists of a 1-mm layer of copper, a 4-mm layer of 1 percent

carbon steel, a 1-cm layer of asbestos sheet, and 10 cm of fiberglass
blanket. Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient for this
arrangement. If the two outside surfaces are at 10 and 150◦C, calculate
each of the interface temperatures.

Solution:

3–52 A 4-m-high and 6-m-wide wall consists of a long 18-cm 30-cm cross section of horizontal bricks (k _
0.72 W/m · °C) separated by 3-cm-thick plaster layers (k = 0.22 W/m · °C). There are also 2-cm-thick
plaster layers on each side of the wall, and a 2-cm-thick rigid foam (k = 0.026 W/m · °C) on the inner side of
the wall. The indoor and the outdoor temperatures are 22°C and - 4°C, and the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and the outer sides are h1 = 10 W/m2 · °C and h2 = 20 W/m2 · °C, respectively.
Assuming one-dimensional heat transfer and disregarding radiation, determine the rate of heat transfer
through the wall.

Solution:

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3–35 The wall of a refrigerator is constructed of fiberglass insulation (k = 0.035 W/m · °C) sandwiched
between two layers of 1-mm-thick sheet metal (k = 15.1 W/m · °C). The refrigerated space is maintained at
2
3°C, and the average heat transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces of the wall are 4 W/m · °C
and 9 W/m2 · °C, respectively. The kitchen temperature averages 25°C. It is observed that condensation
occurs on the outer surfaces of the refrigerator when the temperature of the outer surface drops to 20°C.
Determine the minimum thickness of fiberglass insulation that needs to be used in the wall in order to avoid
condensation on the outer surfaces.

Solution:

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3–70 A50-m-long section of a steam pipe whose outer diameter is 10 cm passes through an open space at
15°C. The average temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is measured to be 150°C. If the combined
heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of the pipe is 20 W/m 2 · °C, determine (a) the rate of heat loss
from the steam pipe, (b) the annual cost of this energy lost if steam is generated in a natural furnace that has
an efficiency of 75 percent and the price of natural gas is $0.52/therm (1 therm _ 105,500 kJ), and (c) the
thickness of fiberglass insulation (k = 0.035 W/m · °C) needed in order to save 90 percent of the heat lost.
Assume the pipe temperature to remain constant at 150°C.

Solution:

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A spherical tank, 1 m in diameter, is maintained at a temperature of 120◦C and

exposed to a convection environment. With h=25W/m2 ・ ◦C and T∞ =15◦C, what
thickness of urethane foam should be added to ensure that the outer temperature of the
insulation does not exceed 40◦C? What percentage reduction in heat loss results from
installing this insulation?

Solution:
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Tutorial heat generation

Q1

A 2-kW resistance heater wire whose thermal conductivity is k =15 W/m · °C has a
diameter of D= 4 mm and a length of L =0.5 m, and is used to boil water (Figure
below). If the outer surface temperature of the resistance wire is Ts =105°C, determine
the temperature at the center of the wire.

Solution:

Assumptions

1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no change with time.

2. Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal

symmetry about the centerline and no

change in the axial direction.

3. Thermal conductivity is constant.

4. Heat generation in the heater is uniform.

The temperature at the center of the wire is the maximum temperature

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̇
˚C.

Q2

Consider a long resistance wire of radius r1 = 0.2 cm and thermal conductivity kwire = 15 W/m
· °C in which heat is generated uniformly as a result of resistance heating at a constant rate of
̇ = 50 W/cm3 (see Figure below). The wire is embedded in a 0.5-cm-thick layer of ceramic
whose thermal conductivity is kceramic 1.2 = W/m · °C. If the outer surface temperature of the
ceramic layer is measured to be Ts = 45°C, determine the temperatures at the center of the
resistance wire and the interface of the wire and the ceramic layer under steady conditions.

Solution:

The temperature distribution in the holow cylinder without heat generation is

expressed as below:

( ) .........a
⁄

The temperature distribution in the solid wire 𝑇𝑠

with heat generation is expressed as below:

̇
( ) ........ b

......c

From equation a:

.........d
⁄

From equation b
̇

̇
...........e

Substitute equation (d) and (e) in (c) gives:

̇
⁄

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At , =

2.4 Thermal Contact Resistance

Imagine two solid bars brought into contact as indicated in Figure 2-19,
with the sides of the bars insulated so that heat flows only in the axial
direction. The materials may have different thermal conductivities, but if
the sides are insulated, the heat flux must be the same through both
materials under steady-state conditions. Experience shows that the actual
temperature profile through the two materials varies approximately as
shown in Figure 2-19b. The temperature drop at plane 2, the contact plane
between the two materials, is said to be the result of a thermal contact
resistance. Performing an energy balance on the two materials, we obtain

where
1/hcA is called the thermal contact resistance and
hc is called the contact coefficient.

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The physical mechanism of contact resistance may be better understood

by examining a joint in more detail, as shown in Figure 2-20. No real
surface is perfectly smooth, and the actual surface roughness is believed
to play a central role in determining the contact resistance. There are two
principal contributions to the heat transfer at the joint:
1. The solid-to-solid conduction at the spots of contact
2. The conduction through entrapped gases in the void spaces created by
the contact
The second factor is believed to represent the major resistance to heat
flow, because the thermal conductivity of the gas is quite small in
comparison to that of the solids.

Figure 2-19 Illustrations of thermal-contact-resistance effect: (a) physical

situation; (b) temperature profile.

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Figure 2-20 Joint-roughness model for analysis of thermal contact

resistance.

Table 2.1 Contact conductance of typical surfaces.

From table 2.1 =5.28*10-4

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2.5 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

There are many different situations that involve such combined conduction–
convection effects, the most frequent application is one in which an extended surface
is used specifically to enhance heat transfer between a solid and an adjoining fluid.
Such an extended surface is termed a fin.

Consider the plane wall of Figure 2.11a. If Ts is fixed, there are two ways in which the
heat transfer rate may be increased. The convection coefficient h could be increased
by increasing the fluid velocity, and/or the fluid temperature T could be reduced.
However, there are many situations for which increasing h to the maximum possible
value is either insufficient to obtain the desired heat transfer rate or the associated
costs are prohibitive. Such costs are related to the blower or pump power
requirements needed to increase h through increased fluid motion. Moreover, the
second option of reducing T is often impractical. Examining Figure 2.11b, however,
we see that there exists a third option. That is, the heat transfer rate may be increased
by increasing the surface area across which the convection occurs. This may be done
by employing fins that extend from the wall into the surrounding fluid.

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FIGURE 2.121 Use of fins to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall. (a) Bare
surface. (b) Finned surface.

The thermal conductivity is the effective parameter in the design of fins. High thermal
conductivity gives high heat transfer rate from the surface of the extended surfaces
(fins)

Examples of fin applications are easy to find. Consider the arrangement for cooling
engine heads on motorcycles and lawn mowers or for cooling electric power
transformers. Consider also the tubes with attached fins used to promote heat
exchange between air and the working fluid of an air conditioner. Two common
finned tube arrangements are shown in Figure 2.12.

FIGURE 2.12 Schematic of typical finned-tube heat exchangers.

Different fin configurations are illustrated in Figure 2.13. A straight fin is any
extended surface that is attached to a plane wall. It may be of uniform cross-sectional
area, or its cross-sectional area may vary with the distance x from the wall.

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FIGURE 2.13 Fin configurations. (a) Straight fin of uniform cross section. (b)
Straight fin of non-uniform cross section. (c) Annular fin. (d) Pin fin.

2.5.1 A General Conduction Analysis

Assumption:

1. No heat generation
2. Study state
3. Constant thermal conductivity.
4. Neglect radiation.
5. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is uniform over the surface.

Figure 2.14 shows the energy balance on the element on the extended surface.

FIGURE 2.14 Energy balance for an extended surface.

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From Fourier’s law we know that

where Ac is the cross-sectional area, which may vary with x. Since the conduction
heat rate at x +dx may be expressed as

( )

The convection heat transfer rate may be expressed as

where dAs is the surface area of the differential element. Substituting the foregoing
rate equations into the energy balance

( )
two func
multi 2f ( ) /kdx

/Ac
Or

( ) ( ) (general equation)

This result provides a general form of the energy equation for an extended surface.

2.5.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

We begin with the simplest case of straight rectangular and pin fins of uniform cross
section (Figure 2.15). Each fin is attached to a base surface of temperature T(x=0) =Tb
and extends into a fluid of temperature . For the prescribed fins, is a constant
and = Px, where As is the surface area measured from the base to x and P is the fin
perimeter. Accordingly, with

d /dx =0 (uniform)

and

d /dx =P,

apply the condition in the general heat equation

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( ) ( )

The general equation simplified to

............(1)

To simplify the form of this equation, we transform the dependent variable by

defining an excess temperature as

............ (2)

FIGURE 2.15 Straight fins of uniform cross section. (a) Rectangular fin. (b)
Pin fin.

Therefore

Let,

So equation (1) simplified to:

........ (3)

Equation (3) is a linear, homogeneous, second-order differential equation

with constant coefficients. Its general solution is of the form

.......... (4)

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To evaluate the constants C1 and C2 of Equation (4), it is necessary to

specify appropriate boundary conditions.

Baundary condition: at , subtitute in equation (2)

................. (5)

Second baundary condition at there is four cases:

Case A: very long fin and the temperature of the tip of the fin approach
the environmental temperature.

Boundary condition 1: At

Substitute in equation (4) gives: base

............... (6)

Boundary condition 2: at , substitute in equation (2)

gives:

subtitute in equation (4) gives:

So, , subtitute in equation (6) gives:

Substitute and in equation (4) gives:

.......... (7) ( Temperature distribution)

To find the heat loss from the fin:

................ (8)

At ,

Substitute in (8)

√ ................ (9)

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Case B: The assumption that the convective heat loss from the fin tip is
negligible, in which case the tip may be treated as adiabatic and :

At

............... (10)

At ,

Substitute and in

/2
.............. (11)

Where:

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To find the heat loss from the fin:

At

√ ............. (12 )

Case C: finite length with heat convection from the fin tip.

considers convection heat transfer from the fin tip. Applying an energy
balance to a control surface about this tip (Figure 2.16), we obtain

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FIGURE 2.16 Conduction and convection in a fin of uniform cross section.

That is, the rate at which energy is transferred to the fluid by convection
from the tip must equal the rate at which energy reaches the tip by
conduction through the fin.

At x=0

........ (13)

At

.......... (14)

From equations (13) and (14) solve to find and

( ) ( )

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( )
........... (15)
( )

Sub. Equation (15) in equation (13):

( )
( )

( )

( )

( )
Let
( )

Therefore:

Sub. & in equation (4)

( )

( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

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( )

( )

The final solution:

... (16) (Temperature distribution)

Heat transfer:

√ ............. (17) (heat transfer)

Example:
A very long rod 5 mm in diameter has one end maintained at 100°C. The surface of
the rod is exposed to ambient air at 25°C with a convection heat transfer coefficient of
100 W/m2 .K.

Determine the heat loss from along rods constructed from pure copper, 2024
aluminum alloy, and type AISI 316 stainless steel.

Solution: go to tables in the book to get the thermal conductivity of the maintioned
material of the rods.

Assumptions:

1. Steady-state conditions.

2. One-dimensional conduction along the rod.

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3. Constant properties.

4. Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings.

5. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.

6. Infinitely long rod.

Fin Efficiency:

The temperature of a fin drops along the fin, and thus the heat transfer from the fin
will be less because of the decreasing temperature difference toward the fin tip. To
account for the effect of this decrease in temperature on heat transfer, we define fin
efficiency as,

Case A: Very long fin

√
√

Therefore:

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Case B: fin with insulated tip.

√ √

Where:

: is the depth of the fin, m.

: is the thickness of the fin, m.

Now if the fin is sufficient deep, i.e the depth large compare with ,
therefore:

√
√
√

Where:

, Profile area.

Case C: finite length with heat convection from the tip of the fin.

This case can be replaced with Case B if we replaced the length by the corrected
length.

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for rectangular fin

for cylindrical fin

Figure 2.17: Efficiencies of straight rectangular and triangular fins.

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Figure 2.18: Efficiencies of circumferential fins of rectangular profile.

EXAMPLE

An aluminum fin [k =200 W/m・ ◦C] 3.0 mm thick and 7.5 cm long
protrudes from a wall, as in Figure below. The base is maintained at
300◦C, and the ambient temperature is 50◦C with h=10 W/m2 ・ ◦C.
Calculate the heat loss from the fin per unit depth of material.

solution:

for rectangular fin

√ √

⁄
√ * +

The heat transfer from insulated tip fin :

For a 1 m depth

W/m

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EXAMPLE

Aluminum fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick are placed on a 2.5-cm-
diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface temperature is 170◦,
and the ambient-fluid temperature is 25◦C. Calculate the heat loss per fin
for h = 130 W/m2 · ◦C. Assume k = 200 W/m · ◦C for aluminum.

Solution:

For this example we can compute the heat transfer by using the fin-
efficiency curves in Figure 2-18. The parameters needed are

m2, Profile area

⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
( ) ( )

From Figure 2-18, = 82 percent. The heat that would be transferred if

the entire fin were at the base temperature is (both sides of fin exchanging
heat)

W.

*Fin Effectiveness

Fins are used to enhance heat transfer, and the use of fins on a surface
cannot be recommended unless the enhancement in heat transfer justifies
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the added cost and complexity associated with the fins. In fact, there is no
assurance that adding fins on a surface will enhance heat transfer. The
performance of the fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in heat
transfer relative to the no-fin case and is expressed in terms of the fin
effectiveness , defined as, Figure 2.19.

𝑞𝑛𝑜 𝑓

𝑞𝑓

𝑞𝑓
𝜀𝑓
𝑞𝑛𝑜 𝑓

Figure 2.19: The effectivness of the fin.

: cross sectional area of the fin, m2.

: fin effectivness.

: heat transfer rate from the fin, m2 .

: heat transfer rate from the base area without fin, m2.

indicates that the addition of fins to the surface does not affect
heat transfer at all.

indicates that the fin actually acts as insulation, slowing down the
heat transfer from the surface.

indicates that fins are enhancing heat transfer from the surface, as
they should.

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However, the use of fins cannot be justified unless fin is sufficiently

larger than 1. Finned surfaces are designed on the basis of maximizing
effectiveness for a specified cost or minimizing cost for a desired
effectiveness. Note that both the fin efficiency and fin effectiveness are
related to the performance of the fin, but they are different quantities.
However, they are related to each other by

Case A : For uniform cross section and long fin Case A, the effectivness is given as:

√ √

Where

Case B: For insulated tip fin:

or

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Because

Therefore:

When determining the rate of heat transfer from a finned surface, we

must consider the un-finned portion of the surface as well as the fins.
Therefore, the rate of heat transfer for a surface containing n fins can be
expressed as

𝐴𝑓

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Example:

Steam in a heating system flows through tubes whose outer diameter is

D1= 3 cm and whose walls are maintained at a temperature of 120°C.
Circular aluminum fins (k =180 W/m · °C) of outer diameter D2 =6 cm
and constant thickness t= 2 mm are attached to the tube, as shown in
Figure below. The space between the fins is 3 mm, and thus there are 200
fins per meter length of the tube. Heat is transferred to the surrounding air
at = 25°C, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h = 60 W/m2 ·
°C. Determine the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its
length as a result of adding fins.

Solution:

In the case of no fins, heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length is
determined from Newton’s law of cooling to be

m2

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m2, Profile area

⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
( ) ( )

From figure 2.18

m2

m2

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Noting that there are 200 fins and thus 200 inter-fin spacing’s per meter length of the
tube, the total heat transfer from the finned tube becomes

Therefore, the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its
length as a result of the addition of fins is

W (per m tube length)

Discussion The overall effectiveness of the finned tube is

That is, the rate of heat transfer from the steam tube increases by a factor
of almost 10 as a result of adding fins. This explains the widespread use
of finned surfaces.
Example:

Steam in a heating system flows through tubes whose outer diameter is D1= 3 cm and
whose walls are maintained at a temperature of 120°C. Circular aluminum fins (k
=180 W/m · °C) of outer diameter D2 =6 cm and constant thickness t= 2 mm are
attached to the tube, as shown in Figure below. The space between the fins is 3 mm,
and thus there are 200 fins per meter length of the tube. Heat is transferred to the
surrounding air at = 25°C, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h = 60
2
W/m · °C. Determine the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its
length as a result of adding fins.

Solution:

In the case of no fins, heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length is determined
from Newton’s law of cooling to be

m2

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m2, Profile area

⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
( ) ( )

From figure 2.18

m2

m2

Noting that there are 200 fins and thus 200 inter fin spacing per meter length of the
tube, the total heat transfer from the finned tube becomes

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Therefore, the increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length as a result
of the addition of fins is

W (per m tube length)

Discussion The overall effectiveness of the finned tube is

That is, the rate of heat transfer from the steam tube increases by a factor of almost 10
as a result of adding fins. This explains the widespread use of finned surfaces.

Holman book

2.33: A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is constructed of stainless steel with

k = 43 W/m・ ◦C and a thickness of 1.0 mm. The fin is installed on a tube having a
diameter of 3.0 cm and the outer radius of the fin is 4.0 cm. The inner tube is
maintained at 250◦C and the assembly is exposed to a convection environment having
T∞ =35◦C and h = 45 W/m2 . ◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the fin.

Solution:

m2

⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
( ) ( )

From figure 2.18

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2.63: A circumferential fin of rectangular profile has a thickness of 0.7mm and is

installed on a tube having a diameter of 3 cm that is maintained at a temperature of
200◦C. The length of the fin is 2 cm and the fin material is copper. Calculate the heat
lost by the fin to a surrounding convection environment at 100◦C with a convection
heat-transfer coefficient of 524 W/m2 ・ ◦C.

Solution:

From figure 2.17 rectangular profile area

W/m

W/m

Solution:

( )

( )

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( )

2-77: A triangular fin of stainless steel (18% Cr, 8% Ni) is attached to a plane wall
maintained at 460◦C. The fin thickness is 6.4 mm, and the length is 2.5 cm. The
environment is at 93◦C, and the convection heat-transfer coefficient is 28 W/m2 ・
◦C. Calculate the heat lost from the fin.

Solution:

=460 ◦C t=6.4 mm L=2.5 cm =93 ◦C =28 W/m2 ・ ◦C =

16.3 W/m .◦C

From figure 2.17 =0.85

(√( ) )

(√( ) ) W

2-80 A straight rectangular fin 2.0 cm thick and 14 cm long is constructed of steel and
placed on the outside of a wall maintained at 200◦C. The environment temperature is
15◦C, and the heat-transfer coefficient for convection is 20 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the
heat lost from the fin per unit depth.

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2-81 An aluminum fin 1.6 mm thick surrounds a tube 2.5 cm in diameter. The length
of the fin is 12.5 mm. The tube-wall temperature is 200◦C, and the environment
temperature is 20◦C. The heat-transfer coefficient is 60W/m2 ・ ◦C. What is the heat
lost by the fin?

2-84 A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is installed on a 10-cm-diameter tube

maintained at 120◦C. The fin has a length of 15 cm and thickness of 2 mm. The fin is
exposed to a convection environment at 23◦C with h = 60 W/m2 ・ ◦C and the fin
conductivity is 120 W/m ・ ◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the fin expressed in watts.

2-85 A long stainless-steel rod [k =16 W/m・ ◦C] has a square cross section 12.5 by
12.5 mm and has one end maintained at 250◦C. The heat-transfer coefficient is 40
W/m2 ・ ◦C, and the environment temperature is 90◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the
rod.

2-86 A straight fin of rectangular profile is constructed of duralumin (94% Al, 3%

Cu) with a thickness of 2.1 mm. The fin is 17 mm long, and it is subjected to a
convection environment with h=75 W/m2 ・ ◦C. If the base temperature is 100◦C and
the environment is at 30◦C, calculate the heat transfer per unit length of fin.

2-87 A certain internal-combustion engine is air-cooled and has a cylinder constructed

of cast iron [k =35 Btu/h ・ ft ・ ◦F]. The fins on the cylinder have a length of 58 in
and thickness of 18 in. The convection coefficient is 12 Btu/h ・ ft2 ・ ◦F. The
cylinder diameter is 4 in. Calculate the heat loss per fin for a base temperature of
450◦F and environment temperature of 100◦F.

2-88 A 1.5-mm-diameter stainless-steel rod [k =19 W/m・ ◦C] protrudes from a wall
maintained at 45◦C. The rod is 12 mm long, and the convection coefficient is
500W/m2 ・ ◦C. The environment temperature is 20◦C. Calculate the temperature of
the tip of the rod. Repeat the calculation for h=200 and 1500 W/m2 ・ ◦C.

Solution:

√ √ √ √

At x=L

◦C

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2-89 An aluminum block is cast with an array of pin fins protruding like that shown in
Figure below and subjected to room air at 20◦C. The convection coefficient between
the pins and the surrounding air may be assumed to be h = 13.2 W/m2 ・ ◦C. The pin
diameters are 2 mm and their length is 25 mm. The base of the aluminum block may
be assumed constant at 70◦C. Calculate the total heat lost by an array of 15 by 15, that
is, 225 fins.

2-90 A finned tube is constructed as shown in Figure below. Eight fins are installed as
shown and the construction material is aluminum. The base temperature of the fins
may be assumed to be 100˚C and they are subjected to a convection environment at
30˚C with h=15 W/m2.˚C. The longitudinal length of the fins is 15 cm and the
peripheral length is 2 cm. The fin thickness is 2 mm. Calculate the total heat
dissipated by the finned tube. Consider only the surface area of the fins.

Solution:

W/m.˚C, n=8, ˚C, =30˚C, h=15 W/m2.˚C, L=0.02, t=0.002

√ ( )

⁄ √

⁄ √ W

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⁄ W.

2-92 A 2-cm-diameter glass rod 6 cm long [k =0.8 W/m・ ◦C] has a base temperature
of 100◦C and is exposed to an air convection environment at 20◦C. The temperature at
the tip of the rod is measured as 35◦C. What is the convection heat-transfer
coefficient? How much heat is lost by the rod?

2-93 A straight rectangular fin has a length of 2.5 cm and a thickness of 1.5 mm. The
thermal conductivity is 55W/m・ ◦C, and it is exposed to a convection environment at
20◦C and h=500 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the maximum possible heat loss for a base
temperature of 200◦C. What is the actual heat loss?

2-94 A straight rectangular fin has a length of 3.5 cm and a thickness of 1.4 mm. The
thermal conductivity is 55W/m・ ◦C. The fin is exposed to a convection environment
at 20◦C and h=500W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the maximum possible heat loss for a base
temperature of 150◦C. What is the actual heat loss for this base temperature?

2-95 A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is constructed of 1 percent carbon

steel and attached to a circular tube maintained at 150◦C. The diameter of the tube is 5
cm, and the length is also 5 cm with a thickness of 2 mm. The surrounding air is
maintained at 20◦C and the convection heat-transfer coefficient may be taken as 100
W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the heat lost from the fin.

2-96 A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is constructed of aluminum and

surrounds a 3-cm-diameter tube. The fin is 2 cm long and 1mm thick. The tube wall
temperature is 200◦C, and the fin is exposed to a fluid at 20◦C with a convection heat-
transfer coefficient of 80 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the heat loss from the fin.

2-97 A 1.0-cm-diameter steel rod [k =20 W/m・ ◦C] is 20 cm long. It has one end
maintained at 50◦C and the other at 100◦C. It is exposed to a convection environment
at 20◦C with h=50 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the temperature at the center of the rod.

2-98 A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is constructed of copper and

surrounds a tube having a diameter of 1.25 cm. The fin length is 6 mm and its
thickness is 0.3 mm. The fin is exposed to a convection environment at 20◦C with
h=55 W/m2 ・ ◦C and the fin base temperature is 100◦C. Calculate the heat lost by
the fin.

2-99 A straight rectangular fin of steel (1% C) is 2 cm thick and 17 cm long. It is

placed on the outside of a wall which is maintained at 230◦C. The surrounding air
temperature is 25◦C, and the convection heat-transfer coefficient is 23W/m2 ・ ◦C.
Calculate the heat lost from the fin per unit depth and the fin efficiency.

2-100 A straight fin having a triangular profile has a length of 5 cm and a thickness of
4 mm and is constructed of a material having k =23 W/m・ ◦C. The fin is exposed to
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surroundings with a convection coefficient of 20W/m2 ・ ◦C and a temperature of

40◦C. The base of the fin is maintained at 200◦C. Calculate the heat lost per unit depth
of fin.

2-101 A circumferential aluminum fin is installed on a 25.4-mm-diameter tube. The

length of the fin is 12.7 mm and the thickness is 1.0 mm. It is exposed to a convection
environment at 30◦C with a convection coefficient of 56 W/m2 ・ ◦C. The base
temperature is 125◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the fin.

2-102 A circumferential fin of rectangular profile is constructed of stainless steel

(18% Cr, 8% Ni). The thickness of the fin is 2.0 mm, the inside radius is 2.0 cm, and
the length is 8.0 cm. The base temperature is maintained at 135◦C and the fin is
exposed to a convection environment at 15◦C with h=20 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the
heat lost by the fin.

2-103 A rectangular fin has a length of 2.5 cm and thickness of 1.1 mm. The thermal
conductivity is 55 W/m・ ◦C. The fin is exposed to a convection environment at 20◦C
and h=500 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate the heat loss for a base temperature of 125◦C.

2-106 A stainless steel rod has a square cross section measuring 1 by 1 cm. The rod
length is 8 cm, and k =18 W/m・ ◦C. The base temperature of the rod is 300◦C. The
rod is exposed to a convection environment at 50◦C with h=45 W/m2 ・ ◦C. Calculate
the heat lost by the rod and the fin efficiency.

2-107 Copper fins with a thickness of 1.0 mm are installed on a 2.5-cm-diameter tube.
The length of each fin is 12 mm. The tube temperature is 275◦C and the fins are
exposed to air at 35◦C with a convection heat-transfer coefficient of 120W/m2 ・ ◦C.
Calculate the heat lost by each fin.

2-110 A circular fin of rectangular profile is attached to a 3.0-cm-diameter tube

maintained at 100◦C. The outside diameter of the fin is 9.0 cm and the fin thickness is
1.0 mm. The environment has a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2 ・ ◦C and a
temperature of 30◦C. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the material for a fin
efficiency of 60 percent.

Tutorial fins unuse single

3–110 Steam in a heating system flows through tubes whose outer

diameter is 5 cm and whose walls are maintained at a temperature of
180°C. Circular aluminum alloy 2024-T6 fins (k = 186 W/m · °C) of
outer diameter 6 cm and constant thickness 1 mm are attached to the tube.
The space between the fins is 3 mm, and thus there are 250 fins per meter
length of the tube. Heat is transferred to the surrounding air at 25°C,

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Dr. Tadahmun Ahmed Yassen ‫ تضامن احمد ياسين‬.‫د‬

with a heat transfer coefficient of h=40 W/m2 · °C. Determine the

increase in heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length as a result of
adding fins. Answer: 2639 W

3–111E Consider a stainless steel spoon (k = 8.7 Btu/h · ft · °F) partially

immersed in boiling water at 200°F in a kitchen at 75°F. The handle of
the spoon has a cross section of 0.08 in. 0.5 in., and extends 7 in. in the
air from the free surface of the water. If the heat transfer coefficient at the
exposed surfaces of the spoon handle is 3 Btu/h · ft2 · °F, determine the
temperature difference across the exposed surface of the spoon handle.
Neglect heat transfer from the fin tip. Answer: 124.6°F

Solution:
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑚 𝐿 𝑥
𝑇𝑏 𝑇 𝑚𝐿

𝑃
𝑚 √
𝑘𝐴𝑐

𝑚 𝐿 𝑥
𝑚𝐿

HEAT TRANSFER 85

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Dr. Tadahmun Ahmed Yassen ‫ تضامن احمد ياسين‬.‫د‬

3–116 A hot surface at 100°C is to be cooled by attaching 3-cm-long,

0.25-cm-diameter aluminum pin fins (k = 237 W/m · °C) to it, with a
center-to-center distance of 0.6 cm. The temperature of the surrounding
medium is 30°C, and the heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces is 35
W/m2 · °C. Determine the rate of heat transfer from the surface for a 1m *
1m section of the plate. Also determine the overall effectiveness of the
fins.

Solution:

for cylindrical fin

m2

m2

√ √ √ √

m2

( ) ( ) m2

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Dr. Tadahmun Ahmed Yassen ‫ تضامن احمد ياسين‬.‫د‬

1m x1 m=1m2

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