ELECTRONIC COMPONENT TESTING AND

MEASUREMENT
(BEC-106)

UNIT-III
Field Effect Transistor

By
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav
Electronics & Communication Department
Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur
Session 2024-25
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 1 / 17
 Unit-III: Field Effect Transistor:

Contents

• Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments:

1 Introduction,
2 Op-Amp basic,
3 Practical Op Amp Circuits (Inverting Amplifier, Non-inverting Amplifier etc).
4 Working principle of digital Storage Oscilloscope, CRO (its working with block
diagram).

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 2 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

• An operational amplifier (op-amp), is most important and versatile analog IC.
• A direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier with an extremely high gain.
• With the help of op-amp, the circuit design becomes very simple.
• The variety of useful circuits can be built without the necessity of knowing
about the complex internal circuitry.
• Circuit symbol and circuit model of an OP-Amp is shown in figure.
• An op-amp has two input terminals − an inverting input V1 and an non-
inverting input V2 , and an output V2 , and an output V0 .
• It requires two power supplies: +Vcc and −VEE .

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 3 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

• It has a very high input impedance

Rin , a very low output impedance Ro
and a very high gain A.
• The input at inverting input termi-
nal results in opposite polarity (an-
tiphase) output. While the input at
non-inverting input terminal results
in the same polarity ( in phase) out-
put.
• The op-amp works on a dual supply.
A dual supply consists of two supply
voltages both dc, whose middle point
is generally the ground terminal.

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 4 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Block Diagram of an OP-Amp

• Input Stage: The input stage is the dual input, balanced output differential
amplifier. This stage provides most of the voltage gain and introduces the high
input resistance of operational amplifier.
• Intermediate Stage This stage is dual input, unbalanced output differential
amplifier, which is driven by the output of first stage.
• Level Shifting Stage: Since direct coupling is used, therefore the DC voltage
at the output of intermediate stage is above the ground potential. Hence,
the level shifting transistor circuit is used after intermediate stage to shift the
DC level at intermediate stage output downward to zero volts with respect to
ground.
• Output Stage: The output stage is a push-pull complementary amplifier. The
output stage increases the output voltage. The output stage also provides low
output resistance.

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 5 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Advantages and Applications of Op-Amps

• Advantages of OP-Amps:
1 Low Cost
2 small size
3 Versatility
4 Flexibility
5 Dependability
• Application of Op-Amps
• Op-amp have become an integral part of almost every electronic circuit which
uses linear integrated circuits.
• Op-amps are used in analog signal processing and analog filtering.
• They are used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc.
• They are used in th field of process control, communications, computers, power
and signal sources, displays and measuring systems.
• they are used in linear applications like voltage follower, differential amplifier,
inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, etc, and non-linear applications like
precision rectifiers, compactors, clampers, Schmitt trigger circuit, etc.
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 6 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Op-Amp IC 741

• IC 741 is the most popular IC version

of op-amp. It is an 8-pin IC as shown
in Figure.
• Pin-2 is the inverting input terminal
and Pin-3 is the non-inverting input
terminal
• Pin-6 is the output terminal.
• Pin-4 is for −VEE (V − ) supply and
pin-7 is for +Vcc (V + ) supply
• Pin-1 and 5 are offset null pins.
These are used to nullyfy offset volt-
age.
• Pin-8 is a dummy pin and no connec-
tion is made to this pin

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 7 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

OP-Amp

• Differential Amplifier
• An op-amp is basically a differential amplifier or difference amplifier which
amplifies the difference between the two inputs signals
• The output voltage is proportional to the difference between two input voltages
as mathematically expressed below

Vo ∝ (V+ − V− )

• Differential Gain
• An op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input signal Vd = V+ −V− .
• The output voltage is given by
Vo = Ad Vd = Ad (V+ − V− )
Vo
where Ad is the differential gain given by Ad = Vd  
Vo
generally Ad is expressed in decibel(dB) as Ad = 20 log10 Vd .
• The differential gain is also called open loop voltage gain
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 8 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

OP-Amp

• Common mode Gain

• If V+ = V− , then ideally the output must be zero.
• But practicallly , the output voltage not only depends on the difference voltage
but also depends on the average common level of the two inputs
• Such a common level is called common mode signal Vc = V+ +V 2
−
.
• The differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to common
mode signal and the output voltages is gives as

Vo = Ac Vc

where Ac is the common mode gain given by Ac = VVoc

• The total output of the differential amplifier is then given by
 
V+ + V−
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc = Ad (V+ − V− ) + Ac
2

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 9 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

OP-Amp

• Common Mode Rejection Ratio: Common mode rejection ration (CMRR)

is the ability of an op-amp to reject a common mode signal. It is defined as
the ratio of differential gain Ad to common mode gain Ac .
Ad
CMRR =
Ac
CMRR is a large value and is often expressed in decibel as
 
Ad
CMRR = 20 log1 0 dB
Ac

Slew rate: Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage with time.

dVo
Slew rate = S =
dt
max

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 10 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

An ideal op-amp has the following characteristics.
1. Infinite voltage gain (AOL = ∞): The voltage gain, also known as differen-
tial open loop gain, which is infinite in an ideal op-amp.
2. Infinite Input impedance (Rin = ∞): The input impedance is infinite in an
ideal op-amp. This means that no current flow into an ideal op-amp.
3. Zero output impedance (Rout = 0): The output impedance is zero in ideal
op-amp. This means output voltage remains the same, irrespective of the value
of the load connected.
4. Zero offset voltage (Vios = 0): The presence of the small output voltage
even when V1 = V2 = 0 is called offset voltage. In and ideal op-amp, offset
voltage is zero. This means that the output voltage is zero if the input is zero.
5. Infinite bandwidth (BW = ∞): The range of frequency over which the
amplifier performance is satisfactory is called its bandwidth. The bandwidth
of and ideal op-amp is infinite.
6. Infinite CMRR (CM RR = ∞): The ration of the differential gain to the
common mode gain called common mode rejection ration (CMRR). In an ideal
op-amp, CMRR is infinite. This means that common mode gain is zero in an
ideal op-amp.
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 11 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

7. Infinite sleq rate (S = ∞): Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of
output voltage with time. In an ideal op-amp, slew rate is infinite. This means
that the change is the output voltage occurs simultaneously with the change
in the input voltage.
8. No effect of temperature: The characteristics of an ideal op-amp do not
change with the change in temperature.
9. Zero PSRR (P SRR = 0): Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) is defined
as the ratio of the change in input offset voltage due to the change in supply
voltage producing it, keeping other power supply voltage constant. In ideal
op-amp, PSRR is zero.

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 12 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Operation of an Op-Amp

• An op-amp is basically differential

amplifier which amplifies the differ-
ence between the two input signals.
• Figure shows the basic operation of
an op-amp as inverting and non-
inverting amplifiers.
• When a voltage V− = Vin is applied
to the inverting input with the non-
inverting input grounded (V+ = 0),
the output voltage is

Vo = A(V+ − V− )
= A(0 − Vin ) = −AVin
• This indicates that the output voltage is amplified with a gain A and inverted
(phase or polarity reversed) with respect to the input voltage as shown in
figure.
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 13 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Operation of an Op-Amp

• when a voltage V+ = Vin is applied to the non-inverting input with inverting

input grounded V− = 0, the output voltage is

Vo = A(V+ − V− ) = A(Vin − 0) = AVin

This indicates that the output voltage is amplified with a gain A and is in the
same phase or polarity as the input voltage.
Assumption: While analyzing the operation of op-amp circuits. two assump-
tions are made:
1. Zero input current: Since the input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite,
no current flows into an op-amp. This makes the input current zero.
2. Virtual Ground: An ideal op-amp has an infinite gain. We know that output
voltage Vo = A(V+ − V− ). That makes V+ − V− = VAo . If gain A is infinite,
that means the difference V+ − V− = 0 or V+ = V−
This means that input terminals of an op-amp are always at the same potential.
Thus if one terminal is grounded, the other terminal can be treated to be
virtually grounded.
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 14 / 17
 Unit-IV: Operational Amplifiers and Electronics Instruments

Inverting Amplifier
• An amplifier which produces a phase shift of 180◦ between input and output is
called inverting amplifier. It is also known as voltage -shunt feedback amplifier.
The following figure shows and inverting amplifier using op-amp.

• Since input impedance for an ideal op-amp is infinite i.e Rin = ∞, therefore,
IB+ = IB− = 0
i.e. Iin = If
Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 15 / 17
 References

References I
[1] M. Bellanger, Digital Signal Processing: Theory and Practice, 10th Edition, 10th ed. WILEY,
2024, isbn: 9781394182664; 139418266X; 9781394182671; 1394182678; 9781394182688;
1394182686.
[2] S. Salivahanan, Digital Signal Processing, 3rd ed. Mc Graw Hill India, 2014, isbn: 9332902836;
9789332902831.
[3] S. Palani, Principles of Digital Signal Processing, 2nd ed. Springer, 2022, isbn: 3030963217;
9783030963217.

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 16 / 17
 References

Thank you
&
Any Query?

Dr. Ishwar Chandra Yadav (Ph.D. NIT Patna) December 25, 2024 17 / 17