Chapter 6

Flexural resistance

6.1 INTRODUCTION

An essential design objective for a structure or a component of a structure is the

provision of adequate strength. The consequences and costs of strength failures
are high and therefore the probability of such failures must be very small.
The satisfaction of concrete and steel stress limits at service loads does
not necessarily ensure adequate strength and does not provide a reliable
indication of either the actual strength or the safety of a structural member.
It is important to consider the non-linear behaviour of the member in the
overloaded range to ensure that it has an adequate structural capacity. Only
by calculating the design resistance of a member can a sufficient margin
between the service load and the ultimate load be guaranteed.
The design resistance of a cross-section in bending M Rd is ­calculated
from a rational and well-established procedure involving consideration of
the design strength of both the concrete and the steel in the compressive
and tensile parts of the cross-section. The prediction of the design flexural
strength is described and illustrated in this chapter. When M Rd is deter-
mined, the design requirements for the strength limit state (as discussed in
Section 2.4) may be checked and satisfied.
In addition to calculating the design strength of a section, a measure of
the ductility of each section must also be established. Ductility is an impor-
tant objective in structural design. Ductile members undergo large defor-
mations prior to failure, thereby providing warning of failure and allowing
indeterminate structures to establish alternative load paths. In fact, it is
only with adequate ductility that the predicted strength of indeterminate
members and structures can be achieved in practice.

6.2 FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR AT OVERLOADS

The load at which collapse of a flexural member occurs is called the

­ultimate load. If the member has sustained large deformations prior to
reaching the ultimate load, it is said to have ductile behaviour. If, on the

219
220 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

other hand, it has only undergone relatively small deformations prior to

failure, the member is said to have brittle behaviour. There is no defined
deformation or curvature that distinguishes ductile from brittle behaviour.
Codes of practice, however, usually impose a ductility requirement by lim-
iting the curvature of a beam or slab at the ultimate load to some minimum
value, thereby ensuring that significant deformation occurs in a flexural
member prior to failure.
Since beam failures that result from a breakdown of bond between the
concrete and the steel reinforcement, or from excessive shear, or from fail-
ure of the anchorage zone tend to be brittle in nature, every attempt should
be made to ensure that, if a beam is overloaded, a ductile flexural failure
would initiate the collapse. Therefore, the design philosophy should ensure
that a flexural member does not fail before the required design moment
capacity of the critical section is attained.
Consider the prestressed concrete cross-section shown in Figure 6.1.
The section contains non-prestressed reinforcement in the compressive
and tensile zones and bonded prestressing steel. Typical strain and stress
distributions for four different values of applied moment are also shown in
Figure 6.1. As the applied moment M increases from typical in-service lev-
els into the overload range, the neutral axis gradually rises and eventually
material behaviour becomes non-linear. The non-prestressed tensile steel

εtop εcu
Asc εsc
12 3 4
M

1. Decompression moment, Mo
Ap εpt 2. Cracking moment, Mcr
Ast εst 3. Post-cracking moment, Mpc
4. Ultimate moment, Mu
Section Strain
fcm
σc,top σc,top σc,top
σsc1 σsc2 σsc3 σsc4 Fsc
dn Fcc Fc
dn

σp1 σp2 σp3 σpu Fpt

Ft
σst1 σst2 σst3 σst4 Fst

1. At Mo 2. At Mcr 3. At Mpc 4. At Mu Resultant forces

Stresses caused by increasing moment

Figure 6.1 Stress and strain distributions caused by increasing moment.

 Flexural resistance 221

may yield (if its strain εs exceeds the yield strain εyk, where εyk = fyk /E s), the
prestressed steel may enter the non-linear part of its stress–strain curve
as εpt increases, the concrete compressive stress distribution becomes non-
linear when the extreme fibre stress exceeds about 0.5fck, and the non-­
prestressed compressive steel may yield (if the magnitude of its strain
exceeds the yield strain εyk).
A flexural member, which is designed to exhibit ductile behaviour, usu-
ally has failure of the critical section preceded by yielding of the bonded
tensile steel, i.e. by effectively exhausting the capacity of the tensile steel to
carry any additional force. Such a member is said to be under-reinforced.
Because the stress–strain curve for the prestressing steel has no distinct
yield point and the stress increases monotonically as the strain increases (see
Figure 4.11), the capacity of the prestressing steel to carry additional force
is never entirely used up until the steel actually fractures. When the tendon
strain exceeds about 0.01 (for wire or strand), the stress–strain curve becomes
relatively flat and the rate of increase of stress with strain is small. After yield-
ing of the steel, the resultant internal tensile force (i.e. F t = Fst + F pt in
Figure 6.1) remains approximately constant (as does the resultant internal
compressive force Fc, which is equal and opposite to Ft). The moment capac-
ity can be further increased slightly by an increase in the lever arm between
Fc and Ft. Under increasing deformation, the neutral axis rises, the compres-
sive zone becomes smaller and the maximum compressive concrete stress
increases. Eventually, after considerable deformation, a compressive failure of
the concrete above the neutral axis occurs and the section reaches its ultimate
capacity. It is, however, the strengths of the prestressing tendons and the non-
prestressed reinforcement in the tensile zone that control the strength of a
ductile section. In fact, the difference between the moment at first yielding of
the tensile steel and the ultimate moment is usually relatively small.
A flexural member, which is over-reinforced, on the other hand, does not
have significant ductility at failure and fails by crushing of the compressive con-
crete without the prestressed or non-prestressed tensile reinforcement reach-
ing yield or deforming significantly after yield. At the ultimate load condition,
both the tensile strain at the steel level and the section curvature are relatively
small and, consequently, there is little deformation or warning of failure.
Because it is the deformation at failure that defines ductility, it is both
usual and reasonable in design to define a minimum ultimate curvature to
ensure the ductility of a cross-section. This is often achieved by placing a
maximum limit on the depth to the neutral axis at the ultimate load condi-
tion. Ductility can be increased by the inclusion of non-prestressed rein-
forcing steel in the compression zone of the beam. With compressive steel
included, the internal compressive force Fc is shared between the concrete
and the steel. The volume of the concrete stress block above the neutral
axis is therefore reduced and, consequently, the depth to the neutral axis is
decreased. Some compressive reinforcement is normally included in beams
to provide anchorage for transverse shear reinforcement.
222 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Ductility is desirable in prestressed (and reinforced) concrete flexural

members. In continuous or statically indeterminate members, ductility is
particularly necessary. Large curvatures are required at the peak moment
regions in order to permit the inelastic moment redistribution that must
occur if the moment diagram assumed in design is to be realised in practice.
Consider the stress distribution caused by the ultimate moment on the sec-
tion in Figure 6.1. The resultant compressive force of magnitude Fc equals
the resultant tensile force F t and the ultimate moment capacity Mu (also
termed the resistance) is calculated from the internal couple:

Mu(= M R) = Fc z = F t z (6.1)

The lever arm z between the internal compressive and tensile resultants
(Fc and F t) is usually about 0.9d, where d is the effective depth of the section
and may be defined as the distance from the extreme compressive fibre to
the position of the resultant tensile force in all the steel on the tensile side
of the neutral axis.
To find the lever arm z more accurately, the location of the resultant com-
pressive force in the concrete Fc needs to be determined by considering the
actual stress–strain relationship for concrete in the compression zone and
locating the position of its centroid.

6.3 DESIGN FLEXURAL RESISTANCE

6.3.1 Assumptions
In the analysis of a cross-section to determine its design bending resistance
M Rd, the following assumptions are usually made:

1. the variation of strain on the cross-section is linear, i.e. strains in the

concrete and the bonded steel are calculated on the assumption that
plane sections remain plane;
2. perfect bond exists between the concrete and the bonded reinforce-
ment or bonded tendons, i.e. the change in strain in the bonded
reinforcement or bonded tendons is the same as that in the adjacent
concrete;
3. concrete carries no tensile stress, i.e. the tensile strength of the con-
crete is ignored;
4. the stresses in the compressive concrete and in the steel reinforcement
(both prestressed and non-prestressed) are obtained from actual or
idealised stress–strain relationships for the respective materials; and
5. the initial strain in the prestressing tendons is taken into account
when determining the stress in the tendon.
 Flexural resistance 223

6.3.2 Idealised compressive stress

blocks for concrete
In order to simplify numerical calculations for the design flexural resis-
tance, EN 1992-1-1 [1] specifies the idealised stress blocks shown in
Figure 6.2 for the concrete on the compressive side of the neutral axis.
Compressive strains are shown as positive in these figures. The strain limits
and the exponent n are given in Table 6.1 for the standard strength grades
of concrete. As an alternative, to the stress blocks in Figure 6.2, an ide-
alised rectangular stress block may be used to model the compressive stress
distribution in the concrete.
In Figure 6.3a, an under-reinforced section at the ultimate moment is
shown. The section has a single layer of bonded prestressing steel. The strain
diagram and the actual concrete stress distribution used for the ultimate
limit state design are also shown. In Figure 6.3b, the idealised rectangular
stress block specified in EN 1992-1-1 [1] to model the design compressive
stress distribution in the concrete above the neutral axis is shown. The
dimensions of the rectangular stress block are calibrated such that the vol-
ume of the stress block and the position of its centroid are approximately
the same as for the curvilinear design stress block.
At the design ultimate moment, the extreme fibre-compressive strain is
taken to be εcu3 and the depth to the neutral axis is x. In reality, the actual
extreme fibre strain may vary depending on the degree of confinement,
but for under-reinforced members, with the flexural resistance very much
controlled by the strength of the tensile steel (both prestressed and non-­
prestressed), variation in the assumed value of εcu3 does not have a signifi-
cant effect on the design resistance M Rd.

σc σc

fck fck

fcd fcd

n
σc = fcd 1− 1− εc
εc2

0 εc2 εcu2 εc 0 εc3 εcu3 εc

(a) (b)

Figure 6.2 Idealised stress blocks for concrete in compression. (a) Parabola–rectangle

diagram. (b) Bilinear diagram.
224 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Table 6.1 Strain limits for idealised stress blocks [1]

Strength classes for concrete
fck Analytical relationship for
MPa ≤50 55 60 70 80 90 fck ≥ 50 MPa
fcm – 63 68 78 88 98 fcm = fck + 8 (MPa)
MPa
εcu1 0.0035 0.0032 0.003 0.0028 0.0028 0.0028 εcu1 = 0.0028 + 0.027
[(98 − fcm)/100]4
εc2 0.002 0.0022 0.0023 0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 εc2 = 0.002 + 0.085 × 10–3
(fck − 50)0.53
εcu2 0.0035 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0026 0.0026 εcu2 = 0.0026 + 0.035
[(90 − fck)/100]4
n 2.0 1.74 1.6 1.45 1.4 1.4 n = 1.4 + 23.4
[(90 − fck)/100]4
εc3 0.00175 0.0018 0.0019 0.002 0.0022 0.0023 εc3 = 0.00175 + 0.00055
[(fck − 50)/40]
εcu3 0.0035 0.0031 0.0029 0.0027 0.0026 0.0026 εcu3 = 0.0026 + 0.035
[(90 − fck)/100]4

b εcu1 fcm

x Fc

dp
h

Ap εpt σpu Fpt

(a) Section Strain Actual stresses at ultimate

b εcu3 η fcd
Ac λx/2

λx x λx Fcd

dp
h

Ap εptd σpud Fptd

(b) Section Strain Design stresses including idealised

rectangular stress block

Figure 6.3 Flexural behaviour of a singly reinforced section at the ultimate limit state
[1]. (a) Curvilinear stress block at ultimate moment. (b) Idealised rectangular
stress block used to calculate the design resistance M Rd.
 Flexural resistance 225

The depth of the rectangular stress block (in Figure 6.3b) is λx and the
uniform stress intensity is ηfcd . For the rectangular section of Figure 6.3b,
the hatched area Ac (= λxb) is therefore assumed to be subjected to a ­uniform
stress of ηfcd. In EN 1992-1-1 [1], λ and η depend on the compressive
strength of concrete and are given by:

λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (6.2)

λ = 0.8 − (fck − 50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (6.3)

η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (6.4)

η = 1.0 − (fck − 50)/200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (6.5)

EN 1992-1-1 [1] recommends that the value of ηfcd should be reduced by

10% for cross-sections that reduce in width as the extreme compressive
fibre is approached.
For the rectangular section of Figure 6.3b, the resultant compressive
force Fcd is the volume of the rectangular stress block given by:

Fcd = ηfcd Ac = ηfcdλxb (6.6)

and the line of action of Fcd passes through the centroid of the hatched area
Ac, i.e. at a depth of λx/2 below the extreme compressive fibre (provided,
of course, that A c is rectangular). The resultant tensile force F ptd on the
cross-section is the force in the tendon:

Fptd = σpud Ap (6.7)

where σpud is the design stress in the tendon and is determined from consid-
erations of equilibrium, strain compatibility and the design stress–strain
relationship for the tendon (given in Figure 4.12).
Axial equilibrium requires that Fptd = Fcd and therefore:

σpud = ηfcdλxb/Ap (6.8)

The flexural design resistance is obtained from Equation 6.1:

 λx 
MRd = Fptd z = σpud Ap  dp − (6.9)
 2 

The ultimate design curvature κud is an indicator of ductility and is the

slope of the design strain diagram at failure (as shown in Figure 6.3b):
εcu3
κud = (6.10)
x
226 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Ductile failures are associated with large deformations at the ultimate

load condition. Ductility is generally acceptable if the depth of the neu-
tral axis at the design resistance x is less than about 0.3 d, where d is the
effective depth to the line of action of Fptd. EN 1992-1-1 [1] requires that
in regions of plastic hinges, x/d should not exceed 0.45 when fck ≤ 50 MPa
and 0.35 when fck ≥ 55 MPa.

6.3.3 Prestressed steel strain components

(for bonded tendons)
For reinforced concrete sections, the strains in the reinforcing steel and in
the concrete at the steel level are the same at every stage of loading, while
for the tendons on a prestressed concrete section, this is not the case. The
strain in the bonded prestressing steel at any stage of loading is equal to the
strain caused by the initial prestress plus the change in strain in the con-
crete at the steel level caused by the applied load. To calculate accurately
the design flexural resistance of a section, an accurate estimate of the final
strain in the prestressed and non-prestressed steel is required. The design
tensile strain in the prestressing steel εpud is much larger than the tensile
strain in the concrete at the steel level, owing to the large initial prestress.
For a bonded tendon, εpud is usually considered to be the sum of several
subcomponents. Figure 6.4 shows the instantaneous strain distributions on
a prestressed section at three stages of loading.
Stage (a) shows the elastic instantaneous concrete strain caused by the
effective prestress Pm,t, when the externally applied moment is zero. The
instantaneous strain in the concrete at the steel level is compressive, with
magnitude approximately equal to:

1  Pm,t Pm,te 2 
εce =  +  (6.11)
Ecm  A I 

b εcu3

x (b)
Centroidal axis

dp
h (c)
e (a)
Ap εptd
εce
Section Bonded tendon Strain

Figure 6.4 Instantaneous strain distributions at three stages of loading.

 Flexural resistance 227

where A is the area of the section, I is the second moment of area of the
section about its centroidal axis and e is the eccentricity of the prestressing
force (as shown in Figure 6.4).
The stress and strain in the prestressing steel at stage (a) are:

Pm,t
σpm,t = (6.12)
Ap

and

σpm,t P
ε pe = = m,t (6.13)
Ep Ep Ap

provided that the steel stress is within the elastic range.

Stage (b) is the concrete strain distribution when the applied moment is
sufficient to decompress the concrete at the steel level. Provided that there
is bond between the steel and the concrete, the change in strain in the pre-
stressing steel is equal to the change in concrete strain at the steel level. The
strain in the prestressing steel at stage (b) is therefore equal to the value at
stage (a) plus a tensile increment of strain equal in magnitude to εce (from
Equation 6.11).
Strain diagram (c) in Figure 6.4 corresponds to the design ultimate load
condition. The concrete strain at the steel level εptd can be expressed in
terms of the extreme compressive fibre strain εcu3 and the depth to the neu-
tral axis x and is given by:

dp − x
ε ptd = εcu3 (6.14)
x

From the requirements of strain compatibility, the change in strain in the

bonded prestressing steel between load stages (b) and (c) is also equal to εptd.
Therefore, the strain in the bonded tendon at the design ultimate load condi-
tion may be obtained from:

εpud = εpe + εce + εptd (6.15)

and εpud can therefore be determined in terms of the position of the n ­ eutral
axis at failure x and the extreme compressive fibre strain εcu3. If εpud is
known, the design stress σpud in the prestressing steel at the design resis-
tance can be determined from the design stress–strain diagram for the
­prestressing steel (Figure 4.12). With the area of prestressing steel known,
the design tensile force Fptd can be calculated. In general, however, the
design steel stress is not known at failure, and it is necessary to equate the
design tensile force in the steel tendon (plus the design tensile force in any
non-prestressed tensile steel) with the design concrete compressive force
228 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

(plus the design compressive force in any non-prestressed compressive steel)

in order to locate the neutral axis depth and hence find εpud.
In general, the magnitude of εce in Equation 6.15 is very much smaller
than either εpe or εptd, and may often be ignored without introducing serious
errors.

6.3.4 Determination of M Rd for a singly

reinforced section with bonded tendons
Consider the section shown in Figure 6.3a and the idealised compressive
stress block shown in Figure 6.3b. In order to calculate the design bending
resistance using Equation 6.9, the depth to the neutral axis x and the final
stress in the prestressing steel σpud must first be determined.
An iterative trial-and-error procedure is usually used to determine the
value of x for a given section. The depth to the neutral axis is adjusted until
horizontal equilibrium is satisfied, i.e. Fptd = Fcd, in which both Fptd and Fcd
are functions of x. For this singly reinforced cross-section, Fcd is the volume
of the compressive stress block given by Equation 6.6 and F ptd depends on
the strain in the prestressing steel εpud. For any value of x, the strain in the
prestressing steel is calculated using Equation 6.15 (and Equations 6.11
through 6.14). The design steel stress σpud, which corresponds to the cal-
culated value of strain εpud, can be obtained from the design stress–strain
curve for the prestressing steel and the corresponding tensile force is given
by Equation 6.7. When the correct value of x is found (i.e. when Fptd = Fcd),
the design flexural resistance M Rd may be calculated from Equation 6.9.
A suitable iterative procedure is outlined and illustrated in the follow-
ing example. About three iterations are usually required to determine a
good estimate of x and hence M Rd .

1. With εcu3 taken from the bottom row in Table 6.1, select an appropri-
ate trial value of x (= x1) and determine the corresponding value of
εpud (= εpud1) from Equation 6.15 and Fcd (= Fcd1) from Equation 6.6.
By equating the tensile force in the steel to the compressive force in
the concrete, the stress in the tendon σpud (= σpud1) may be determined
from Equation 6.8.
2. Plot the points εpud1 and σpud1 on the graph containing the design
stress–strain curve for the prestressing steel (as illustrated subse-
quently in Figure 6.6). If the point falls on the curve, then the value of
x selected in step 1 is correct. If the point is not on the curve, then the
stress–strain relationship for the prestressing steel is not satisfied and
the value of x is not correct.
3. If the points εpud1 and σpud1 plotted in step 2 are not sufficiently close
to the design stress–strain curve for the steel, repeat steps 1 and 2
with a new estimate of x (= x 2) to obtain revised estimates of tendon
strain and stress (εpud2 and σpud2). A larger value for x is required if the
 Flexural resistance 229

point plotted in step 2 is below the design stress–strain curve and a

smaller value is required if the point is above the curve. Plot the new
points εpud2 and σpud2 on the curve.
4. Interpolate between the plots from steps 2 and 3 to obtain a close
estimate for εpud and σpud and the corresponding value for x.
5. With the values of σpud and x determined in step 4, calculate the design
moment resistance M Rd . If the area above the neutral axis is rectan-
gular, M Rd is obtained from Equation 6.9. Non-rectangular-shaped
cross-sections are considered in Section 6.5.

EXAMPLE 6.1
The design flexural resistance M Rd of the rectangular section of Figure 6.5 is
to be calculated.
The steel tendon consists of ten 12.9 mm strands (steel type Y1860S). From
Table 4.8, A p = 1,000 mm2 , fpk = 1,860 MPa, fpd = 1,391 MPa, Ep = 195,000 MPa,
γs = 1.15 and εuk = 0.035. The effective prestress is Pm,t = 1,200 kN. The design
stress–strain relationship for prestressing steel is shown in Figure 6.6 (taken
as Line 1 from Figure 4.12). The concrete properties are fck = 40 MPa and
E cm = 35,000 MPa.

With the partial safety factor for concrete γC = 1.5 and the coefficient
αcc = 1.0, the design strength of concrete is given by Equation 4.11:

α ccf ck 1.0 × 40
f cd = = = 26.67 MPa
γC 1.5

From Equation 6.2, λ = 0.8 and, from Equation 6.4, η = 1.0.

350 εcu3 = 0.0035 η fcd

λx/2

x λx Fcd

650
750
εce
Ap εptd
σpud Fptd
Section Strain Strain at the design Stresses and forces at
due to Pm,t resistance the design resistance

Figure 6.5 Section details and stress and strain distributions used for the calculation
of design flexural resistance MRd (Example 6.1).
230 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

3
1589 MPa 1 fpk/γs = 1617 MPa
1500
fpd = 1391 MPa 2
σp = 8110εp+1333 (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

1000

500

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 Strain
fpd/Ep = 0.007135 εud = 0.0315

Figure 6.6 Stress–strain curve for strand (Example 6.1).

The initial strain in the tendons due to the effective prestress is given by
Equation 6.13:

Pm,t 1, 200 ×103

εpe = = = 0.00615
Ep Ap 195, 000 ×1, 000

The strain in the concrete caused by the effective prestress at the level of the
prestressing steel (εce in Figure 6.4) is calculated using Equation 6.11. Because
εce is small compared with εpe, it is usually acceptable to use the properties of
the gross cross-section for its determination:

1  1, 200 ×103 1, 200 ×103 × 2752 

εce =  +  = 0.000341
35, 000  750 × 350 350 × 7503 /12 

The concrete strain at the prestressed steel level at the design ultimate con-
dition is obtained from Equation 6.14:

 650 − x 
εptd = 0.0035 × 
 x 

and the final strain in the prestressing steel is given by Equation 6.15:

 650 − x 
εpud = 0.00615 + 0.000341 + 0.0035 ×  (6.1.1)
 x 
 Flexural resistance 231

When εpd (= fpd/Ep) ≤ εpud ≤ εud, the stress–strain relationship for the
­tendon is obtained from Figure 4.12 as:

σpud − f pd ε − ( f pd /Ep )
= pud
( f pk /γ s ) − f pd εuk − ( f pd /Ep )

The magnitude of resultant compressive force Fcd carried by the concrete

on the rectangular section is the volume of the idealised rectangular stress
block in Figure 6.5 and is given by Equation 6.6:

Fcd = ηfcdλxb = 1.0 × 26.67 × 0.8 × 350x = 7467x

The resultant tensile force Fptd is given by Equation 6.7:

Fptd = 1000 × σpud

Horizontal equilibrium requires that Fcd = Fptd and hence:

σpud = 7.467 x (6.1.2)

Trial values of x are selected and the corresponding values of εpud and σpud
(calculated from Equations 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 earlier) are tabulated in the follow-
ing text and plotted on the stress–strain curve for the steel in Figure 6.6.

Trial x εpud σpud (MPa) Point plotted on

(mm) Equation 6.1.1 Equation 6.1.2 Figure 6.6
210 0.0138 1568 1
190 0.0150 1419 2
195 0.0147 1456 3

Point 3 lies sufficiently close to the stress–strain curve for the tendon and
therefore the correct value for x is close to 195 mm. With x/d = 0.300 < 0.45,
the ductility requirements of EN 1992-1-1 [1] are satisfied.
The design moment resistance is given by Equation 6.9:

 0.8 ×195 
M Rd = 1456 ×1000  650 −  = 833 ×10 Nmm = 833 kNm
6

 2 

and Equation 6.10 gives the design curvature corresponding to M Rd:

0.0035
κud = = 18.0 ×10 −6 mm−1
195
232 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

6.3.5 Determination of M Rd for sections containing

non-prestressed reinforcement and
bonded tendons
Frequently, in addition to the prestressing reinforcement, prestressed con-
crete beams contain non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement in both the
compressive and tensile zones. This reinforcement may be included for a
variety of reasons. For example, non-prestressed reinforcement is included
in the tensile zone to provide additional flexural strength when the strength
provided by the prestressing steel is not adequate. Non-prestressed tensile
steel is also included to improve crack control when cracking is anticipated
at service loads. Non-prestressed compressive reinforcement may be used
to strengthen the compressive zone in beams that might otherwise be over-
reinforced. In such beams, the inclusion of compression reinforcement not
only increases the design ultimate strength, but also increases the curvature
at failure and, therefore, improves ductility.
The use of compressive reinforcement also reduces long-term deflections
caused by creep and shrinkage and, therefore, improves serviceability. If
for no other reason, compression reinforcement may be included to provide
anchorage and bearing for the transverse reinforcement (stirrups) in beams.
When compressive reinforcement is included, closely spaced transverse
ties should be used to laterally brace the highly stressed bars in compression
and prevent them from buckling outward. In general, the spacing of these
ties should not exceed about 16 times the diameter of the compressive bar.
Consider the doubly reinforced section shown in Figure 6.7a. The resul-
tant design compressive force consists of a steel component Fsd(1) (= σsd(1) As(1))
and a concrete component Fcd (= ηfcdλxb). The magnitude of the strain in the
compressive reinforcement is determined from the geometry of the linear
strain diagram shown in Figure 6.7b and is given by:
εcu3(x − ds(1))
εsd(1) = (6.16)
x

b εcu3 η fcd
ds(1)
σsd(1) Fsd(1)
As(1) x εsd(1) λx
Fcd

ds(2) dp zc zs
zp
Ap εptd σpud Fptd
As(2) εsd(2) σsd(2) Fsd(2)
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.7 Doubly reinforced rectangular cross-section at the ultimate design moment.

(a) Section. (b) Strain. (c) Stresses. (d) Forces.
 Flexural resistance 233

If the idealised elastic–plastic design stress–strain relationship of Figure 4.8

is used, when εsd(1) is less than or equal to the design yield strain of the
non-prestressed steel (εyd = fyd /E s = fyk /(γS E s)) then the design stress in the
compressive steel is σsd(1) = εsd(1) E s. If εsd(1) exceeds the design yield strain,
then σsd(1) = fyd = fyk /γS.
The resultant tensile force in Figure 6.7d consists of a prestressed compo-
nent Fptd (= σpud Ap) and a non-prestressed steel component Fsd(2) (= σsd(2) As(2)).
The design stress in the non-prestressed tensile steel is determined from the
strain εsd(2) given by:

εcu3(ds(2) − x)
εsd(2) = (6.17)
x

If εsd(2) ≤ εyd, then σsd(2) = εsd(2) E s . If εsd(2) > εyd, then σsd(2) = fyd .
In order to calculate the depth to the neutral axis x at the ultimate design
moment, a trial-and-error approach similar to that outlined in Section
6.3.4 can be employed. Successive values of x are tried until the value which
satisfies the following horizontal equilibrium equation is determined:

Fptd + Fsd(2) = Fcd + Fsd(1) (6.18)

Since one of the reasons for the inclusion of compressive reinforcement

is to improve ductility, most doubly reinforced beams are, or should be,
under-reinforced, i.e. the non-prestressed tensile steel A s(2) is at yield at the
ultimate design moment. Whether or not the compressive steel A s(1) has
yielded depends on its depth ds(1) from the top compressive surface of the
section and on the depth to the neutral axis x.
For any value of x, with the stresses in the compressive and tensile rein-
forcement determined from the strains εsd(1) and εsd(2) (given by Equations
6.16 and 6.17, respectively), Equation 6.18 can be expanded as:

Fcd = ηfcdλxb
= Fptd + Fsd(2) − Fsd(1) = σpud Ap + σsd(2) As(2) − σsd(1) As(1)

and this can be rearranged to give the following expressions for x and σpud:

σpud Ap − σsd(2)As(2) + σsd(1)As(1)

x= (6.19)
ηfcdλb

ηfcdλxb − σsd(2)As(2) + σsd(1)As(1)

σpud = (6.20)
Ap

When the value of σpud (calculated from Equation 6.20) and the value
of εpud (calculated from Equation 6.15) together satisfy the stress–strain
­relationship of the prestressing steel, the correct value of x has been found.
234 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

If it has been assumed that the non-prestressed steel has yielded in the cal-
culations, the corresponding steel strains should be checked to ensure that
the steel has, in fact, yielded. If the compressive steel is not at yield, then
the compressive force Fs(1) has been overestimated and the correct value of
x is slightly greater than the calculated value. The compressive steel stress
σsd(1) in Equations 6.19 and 6.20 should be taken as εsd(1) E s instead of fyd .
Further iteration may be required to determine the correct value of x and
the corresponding internal forces Fcd, Fsd(1), Fptd and Fsd(2) .
With horizontal equilibrium satisfied, the design moment resistance of
the section may be determined by taking moments of the internal forces
about any convenient point on the cross-section. Taking moments about
the non-prestressed tensile reinforcement level gives:

M Rd = Fcd zc + Fsd(1) zs − Fptd zp (6.21)

For the rectangular section shown in Figure 6.7, the lever arms from the
non-prestressed tensile reinforcement to each of the internal forces in
Equation 6.21 are:

λx
zc = ds(2) − zs = ds(2) − ds(1) zp = ds(2) − dp
2

In these equations, Fsd(1) and Fcd are the magnitudes of the compressive
forces in the steel and concrete, respectively, and are therefore considered
to be positive.
The design ultimate curvature is obtained from Equation 6.10. For duc-
tility to be acceptable, the depth of the neutral axis x should be less than
about 0.3d, where d is the effective depth to the line of action of the resul-
tant of the tensile forces Fptd and Fsd(2). The minimum design curvature
required for ductility is therefore:

3.33εcu3
(κud )min = (6.22)
d

EXAMPLE 6.2
To the cross-section shown in Figure 6.5 and analysed in Example 6.1, non-
prestressed reinforcing bars of area A s = 1350 mm2 are added in the tensile
zone at a depth ds = 690 mm. Calculate the design flexural resistance M Rd of
the section. From Table 4.6, for B500B type reinforcing steel, the design yield
stress is fyd = 435 MPa and the elastic modulus is E s = 200,000 MPa. All other
material properties and cross-sectional details are as specified in Example 6.1.
 Flexural resistance 235

The design strain in the prestressing steel is as calculated in Example 6.1:

 650 − x 
εpud = 0.006491 + 0.0035 ×  (6.2.1)
 x 

and the magnitude of the compressive force Fcd carried by the concrete above
the neutral axis is:

Fcd = ηfcdλxb = 1.0 × 26.67 × 0.8 × 350x = 7467x

From Equation 6.17 and with εcu3 = 0.0035, the non-prestressed tensile
steel is at yield, i.e. εsd ≥ εyd (= fyd/Es = 0.002175), provided that the depth
to the neutral axis x is less than or equal to 0.6167ds (= 425.6 mm). If σsd is
assumed to equal fyd, the resultant tensile force Ftd (= Fptd + Fsd) is given by:

Ftd = σpud Ap + f yd As = 1000σpud + ( 435 ×1350)

= 1000 × ( σpud + 587.3)

and enforcing horizontal equilibrium (i.e. Fcd = Ftd):

σpud = 7.467x − 587.3 (6.2.2)

Trial values of x are now selected, and the respective values of εpud and σpud
are tabulated here and plotted on the stress–strain curve in Figure 6.8:

Trial x εpud σpud (MPa) Point plotted on

(mm) Equation 6.2.1 Equation 6.2.2 Figure 6.8
280 0.0111 1503 4
260 0.0117 1354 5
269.5 0.0114 1425 6

Since point 6 lies sufficiently close to the stress–strain curve for the ten-
don, the value for x is taken as 269.5 mm, and the effective depth to the
resultant tensile force is d = 670 mm and, therefore, x/d = 0.402.
It is apparent in Figure 6.8 that the strain in the prestressing steel is
decreased by the introduction of tensile reinforcement (from point 3 to point 6)
and the depth to the neutral axis is increased. From Equation 6.10, the design
ultimate curvature is:

0.0035
κud = = 13.0 ×10 −6 mm−1
269.5

and this is 27.8% less than that obtained in Example 6.1 (where A s = 0).
236 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

1589 MPa 1 fpk/γs = 1617 MPa

1500 4 3
fpd = 1391 MPa 2
5
σp = 8110 εp+1333 (MPa)
6
Stress (MPa)

1000

500

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 Strain
fpd/Ep = 0.007135 εud = 0.0315

Figure 6.8 Stress–strain curve for strand (Example 6.2).

The strain in the tensile reinforcement at the strength limit state is given
by Equation 6.17:

0.0035(690 − 269.5)
εsd(2) = = 0.0055 > ε yd
269.5

and therefore the non-prestressed steel has yielded, as previously assumed.

The depth from the top surface to the resultant force in the tensile steel is:

σpud Ap dp + f yd Asds
d= = 662 mm
σpud Ap + f yd As

The minimum curvature required to ensure some measure of ductility is

obtained from Equation 6.22:

3.33 × 0.0035
( κud )min = = 17.6 ×10 −6 mm−1
662

and this is greater than κud. The section is therefore non-ductile and, in design,
it would be prudent to insert some non-prestressed compressive reinforce-
ment to increase the design ultimate curvature and improve ductility (at least
to the level required by Equation 6.22).
 Flexural resistance 237

The design compressive force in the concrete is Fcd = 7467 x 269.5 x 10 –3

= 2012 kN and the tensile force in the tendon is Fptd = σpud A p = 1425 kN. The
design moment resistance is calculated from Equation 6.21:

 λx 
MRd = Fcd zc − Fptd zp = Fcd  ds − − Fptd ( ds − dp )
 2 

 0.8 × 269.5  −3 −3
= 2012 ×  690 −  ×10 − 1425 × (690 − 650) ×10
 2 
= 1114 kNm

EXAMPLE 6.3
Consider the effect on both strength and ductility of the cross-section of
Example 6.2 if reinforcement of area A s(1) = 900 mm2 is included in the com-
pression zone. Details of the cross-section are shown in Figure 6.9, together
with the stress and strain distributions at the ultimate design moment. All
data are as specified in Examples 6.1 and 6.2.

From Examples 6.1 and 6.2, the design ultimate strain in the tendons is:

 650 − x 
εpud = 0.006491 + 0.0035 ×  (6.3.1)
 x 

εcu3 = 0.0035 η fcd

350
60 σsd(1)
εsd(1) Fsd(1)
900 mm2 x 0.8x Fcd

650
690

1000 mm2 εptd σpud Fptd

1350 mm2 εsd(2) σsd(2) Fsd(2)
Section Strain Stress block and
resultant forces

Figure 6.9 Section details and stress and strain distributions at the design ultimate
moment condition (Example 6.3).
238 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

and the strain in the non-prestressed tensile reinforcement in Example 6.2 is

greater than εsd and, hence, σsd(2) = fyd.
The magnitude of the compressive steel strain is given by Equation 6.16:

0.0035( x − 60)
εsd(1) = (6.3.2)
x

and the stress in the compression steel can be readily obtained from εsd(1) for
any value of x.
By equating (Fcd + Fsd(1)) with (Fptd + Fsd(2)), the expression for σpud given by
Equation 6.20 becomes:

1.0 × 26.67 × 0.8 × x × 350 − 435 ×1350 + σsd(1) × 900

σpud =
1000
= 7.468 x − 587 + 0.9σsd(1) (6.3.3)

Values of εpud, εsd(1), σsd(1) and σpud for trial values of x are tabulated below
and plotted as points 7–9 in Figure 6.10:

εpud εsd(1) σpud (MPa)

Trial x Equation Equation σsd(1) Equation Point plotted on
(mm) 6.3.1 6.3.2 (MPa) 6.3.3 Figure 6.10
230 0.0129 0.00259 435 1522 7
210 0.0138 0.00250 435 1372 8
219 0.0134 0.00254 435 1440 9

9
1589 MPa fpk/γs = 1617 MPa
7
1500
fpd = 1391 MPa 8
6
σp = 8110 εp+1333 (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

1000

500

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 Strain
fpd/Ep = 0.007135 εud = 0.0315

Figure 6.10 Stress–strain curve for strand (Example 6.3).

 Flexural resistance 239

From Figure 6.10, point 9 lies very close to actual stress–strain curve and
therefore the neutral axis depth is taken as x = 219 mm.
It is apparent from Figure 6.10 that the design strain in the prestressing
steel is increased by the introduction of compressive reinforcement (from
point 6 to point 9) and the depth to the neutral axis is decreased. The design
ultimate curvature is obtained from Equation 6.10:

0.0035
κud = = 16.0 ×10 −6 mm−1
219

which represents a 23% increase in final curvature caused by the introduction

of the compressive reinforcement and an improvement in the ductility of the
cross-section.
The magnitudes of the resultant forces on the cross-section are:

Fcd = 1635 kN Fsd(1) = 392 kN Fptd = 1440 kN Fsd(2) = 587 kN

and the design moment resistance is calculated using Equation 6.21:

 λx 
MRd = Fcd zc + Fsd(1) zs − Fptd zp = Fcd  ds(2) − + Fsd(1) ( ds(2) − ds(1) ) − Fptd ( ds(2) − dp )
 2 

  0.8 × 219   −3
= 1635 ×  690 −  + 392 × (690 − 60) − 1440 × (690 − 650) ×10
  2  
= 1174 kNm

This represents a 5.4% increase in strength compared to the section without

compressive steel that was analysed in Example 6.2. In general, for non-­ductile
sections, the addition of compressive reinforcement causes a significant
increase in curvature (i.e. a significant increase in ductility) and a less significant,
but nevertheless appreciable, increase in strength.

6.3.6 Members with unbonded tendons

In post-tensioned concrete, where the prestressing steel is not bonded to the
concrete, the design stress in the tendon σpud is significantly less than that
predicted for a bonded tendon, and the final strain in the tendon is more
difficult to determine accurately. The design resistance of a section contain-
ing unbonded tendons may be as low as 75% of the strength of an equiva-
lent section containing bonded tendons. Hence, from a strength point of
view, bonded construction is to be preferred.
240 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

An unbonded tendon is not restrained by the concrete along its length,

and slip between the tendon and the duct takes place as the external loads
are applied and the member deforms. The tendon strain is more uniform
along the length of the member and tends to be lower in regions of maxi-
mum moment than would be the case for a bonded tendon. The design
resistance of the section may be reached before the stress in the unbonded
tendon reaches its yield stress. For members not containing any bonded
reinforcement, crack control may be a problem if cracking occurs in the
member for any reason. If flexural cracking occurs, the number of cracks in
the tensile zone is fewer than in a beam containing bonded reinforcement,
but the cracks are wider and less serviceable.
To determine the increase in design stress in an unbonded tendon at
the ultimate limit state Δσp, it is necessary to consider the deformation
of the whole member using the mean values of the material properties.
The design value of the stress increase is Δσpd = ΔσpγΔP. When non-linear
analysis is undertaken, the partial safety factor γΔP is taken as 1.2 when
the upper ­characteristic value of Δσpd is required, and γΔP = 0.8 when the
lower characteristic value of Δσpd is required. If linear analysis is applied,
with uncracked section properties, the calculated member deformation
will generally underestimate the actual deformations and EN1992-1-1 [1]
permits γΔP to be taken as 1.0 and Δσpd = Δσp.
If no detailed calculation of the change in length of the tendon is made,
EN 1992-1-1 [1] allows the stress in the tendon at the ultimate limit state
to be assumed to equal the effective prestress (after all losses) plus Δσp,ULS =
100 MPa.
To ensure robustness and some measure of crack control, it is good prac-
tice to include non-prestressed bonded tensile reinforcement in members
where the post-tensioned tendons are to remain unbonded for a significant
period during and after construction.

EXAMPLE 6.4
The design flexural resistance of a simply-supported post-tensioned beam
containing a single unbonded cable is to be calculated. The beam spans 12 m
and its cross-section at mid-span is shown in Figure 6.5. Material properties
and prestressing arrangement are as specified in Example 6.1.

The stress in the tendon caused by the effective prestressing force Pm,t =
1200 kN is:

σpm,t = Pm,t /A p = 1200 × 103/1000 = 1200 MPa

 Flexural resistance 241

EN1992-1-1 [1] permits the design stress in the tendon at the strength limit
state to be taken as:

σpud = σpm,t + 100 = 1300 MPa

and therefore the tensile force in the steel is Fptd = 1300 kN (= Fcd). This is
almost 10.7% lower than the value determined in Example 6.1 where the ten-
don was bonded to the concrete. The depth to the neutral axis is calculated as:

Fptd 1300 ×103

x= = = 174.1 mm
ηf cdλb 1.0 × 26.67 × 0.8 × 350

and Equation 6.9 gives:

 0.8 ×174.1  −6
MRd = 1300 ×1000 ×  650 −  ×10 = 754 kNm
 2 

In Example 6.1, the design bending resistance of the same cross-section

with a bonded tendon was calculated to be 833 kNm. Clearly, the strength
afforded by a post-tensioned tendon is significantly reduced if it remains
unbonded.

6.4 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

6.4.1 Discussion
The magnitude of the effective prestressing force Pm,t and the quantity of
the prestressing steel Ap are usually selected to satisfy the serviceability
requirements of the member, i.e. to control deflection or to reduce or elimi-
nate cracking. With serviceability satisfied, the member is then checked for
adequate strength. The design resistance M Rd for the section containing
the prestressing steel (plus any non-prestressed steel added for crack con-
trol or deflection control) is calculated and the design resistance is com-
pared with the design action, in accordance with the design requirements
outlined in Section 2.4. The design action M Ed is the moment caused by the
most severe factored load combination specified for the strength limit state
(see Section 2.3.2). The design requirement is expressed by:

M Rd ≥ M Ed (6.23)
The prestressing steel needed for the satisfaction of serviceability require-
ments may not be enough to provide adequate strength. When this is the case,
242 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

the design moment resistance can be increased by the inclusion of addi-

tional non-prestressed tensile reinforcement. Additional compressive rein-
forcement may also be required to improve ductility.

6.4.2 Calculation of additional non-prestressed

tensile reinforcement
Consider the singly reinforced cross-section shown in Figure 6.11a. It is
assumed that the effective prestress Pm,t, the area of the prestressing steel
Ap and the cross-sectional dimensions have been designed to satisfy the
serviceability requirements of the member. The idealised strain and stress
distributions specified in EN1992-1-1 [1] for the ultimate limit state are
also shown in Figure 6.11a. The design moment resistance of the section,
denoted as M Rd1, is calculated as follows:

 λx 
MRd1 = σpud1Ap  dp − 1  (6.24)
 2 

where the tendon stress at the ultimate limit state σpud1 can be calculated from
the actual stress–strain curve for the steel (as illustrated in Example 6.1) or
from the approximation illustrated in Example 6.4.

b εcu3 η fcd
Fcd1 = η fcdbλx1
x1 λx1

dp MRd1
z1

Ap εptd1 σpud1
Fptd1 = σpud1Ap

(a) Section Strain Stresses Forces

b εcu3 η fcd
Fcd1
x > x1 λx
Fcd2 = η fcdbλ(x–x1)
ds dp
MRd z2

Ap εptd σpud Fptd

As εsd σsd = fyd Fsd
(b) Section Strain Stresses Forces

Figure 6.11 Cross-section containing tensile reinforcement – ultimate design condition.

(a) Singly reinforced prestressed cross-section. (b) Cross-section containing
both prestressed and non-prestressed tensile reinforcement.
 Flexural resistance 243

If the design resistance M Rd1 is greater than or equal to M Ed, then no addi-
tional tensile steel is necessary, and the cross-section has adequate strength.
If M Rd1 is less than M Ed, the section is not adequate and additional tensile
reinforcement is required.
In addition to providing adequate strength, it is important also to ensure
that the section is ductile. To ensure that the design ultimate curvature κud
is large enough to provide sufficient ductility, an upper limit for the depth
to the neutral axis of about 0.3dp should be enforced. If the value of xl in
Figure 6.11a is greater than 0.3dp, some additional non-prestressed com-
pressive reinforcement is required to relieve the concrete compressive zone
and reduce the depth to the neutral axis. The design procedure outlined in
Section 6.4.3 for doubly reinforced cross-sections is recommended in such
a situation.
For the cross-section shown in Figure 6.11a, if M Rd1 is less than M Ed and if
xl is small so that ductility is not a problem, the aim in design is to calculate
the minimum area of non-prestressed tensile reinforcement As that must be
added to the section to satisfy strength requirements (i.e. the value of A s such
that M Rd = M Ed). In Figure 6.11b, the cross-section containing A s is shown,
together with the revised strain and stress distributions at ­the ultimate limit
state design condition. With x small enough to ensure ductility, the tensile
steel strain εsd is greater than the yield strain εyd (= fyd /E s), so that σsd = fyd.
The addition of As to the cross-section causes an increase in the resultant
design tension (Fptd + Fsd) and hence an increase in the resultant compression
Fcd (= Fcd1 + Fcd2). To accommodate this additional compression, the depth
of the compressive stress block in Figure 6.11b must be greater than the
depth of the stress block in Figure 6.11a (i.e. λx > λx1). The increased value
of x results in a reduction in the design ultimate curvature (i.e. a decrease in
ductility), a reduction in the strain in the prestressing steel and a consequent
decrease in σpud. While the decrease in σpud is relatively small, it needs to be
verified that the modified cross-section possesses adequate ductility (i.e. that
the value of x remains less than about 0.3d).
If σpud is assumed to remain constant, a first estimate of the magnitude
of the area of non-prestressed steel A s required to increase the design resis-
tance from M Rd1 (the strength of the section prior to the inclusion of the
additional steel) to the design bending moment M Ed (equal to the required
minimum strength of the section) may be obtained from:
MEd − MRd1
As ≥ (6.25)
fyd z2

where z 2 is the lever arm between the design tension force in the additional
steel Fsd and the equal and opposite compressive force Fcd2 which results
from the increase in the depth of the compressive stress block. The lever
arm z 2 may be approximated initially as:
z2 = 0.9(ds − λx1) (6.26)
244 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

EXAMPLE 6.5
The design resistance of the singly reinforced cross-section shown in Figure 6.12
is MRd1 = 931 kNm. The stress and strain distributions corresponding to M Rd1
are also shown in Figure 6.12 and the material properties are fck = 40 MPa
(fcd = 26.67 MPa), λ = 0.8, η = 1.0, fpk = 1860 MPa, fpd = 1391 MPa, E p =
195000 MPa. Calculate the additional amount of non-­prestressed tensile rein-
forcement located at ds = 840 mm (fyd = 435 MPa) if the design bending moment
on the section is MEd = 1250 kNm.

For the section in Figure 6.12, x1 = 159 mm = 0.212dp and the section is
ductile. If the additional tensile steel is to be added at ds = 840 mm, then the
lever arm z2 in Equation 6.26 may be approximated by:

z2 = 0.9 ( ds − λx1) = 0.9 × ( 840 − 0.8 ×159) = 641.5 mm

and the required area of non-prestressed steel is estimated using Equation 6.25:

(1250 − 931) ×106

As ≥ = 1143 mm2
435 × 641.5

Choose four 20 mm diameter bars (A s = 1256 mm2) located at a depth ds =

840 mm.
A check of this section to verify that M Rd ≥ 1250 kNm, and also that the
section is ductile, can now be made using the trial-and-error procedure illus-
trated in Example 6.2.

400 0.0035 η fcd = 26.67 MPa

λx1/2

x1 = 159 mm
Fcd1 = 1357 kN
750
λx1 = 127.2 mm
Muo1 = 931 kNm
Ap = 900 mm2 εptd1
150 σpud1 = 1508 kN Fptd1 = 1357 kN
Section Strain Stresses Forces

Figure 6.12 Singly reinforced cross-section of Example 6.5.

 Flexural resistance 245

6.4.3 Design of a doubly reinforced cross-section

For a singly reinforced section (such as that shown in Figure 6.13a) in which
xl is greater than about 0.3dp, the inclusion of additional tensile reinforce-
ment may cause ductility problems. In such cases, the design resistance may
be increased by the inclusion of suitable quantities of both tensile and com-
pressive non-prestressed reinforcement without causing any reduction in
curvature, i.e. without increasing x. If the depth to the neutral axis is held
constant at xl, the values of both Fcd (the compressive force carried by the
concrete) and Fptd (the tensile force in the prestressing steel) in Figures 6.13a
and b are the same. In each figure, Fcd is equal and opposite to Fptd. With the
strain diagram in Figure 6.13b known, the strains at the levels of the top
and bottom non-prestressed steel may be calculated using Equations 6.16
and 6.17, respectively, and hence the non-prestressed steel stresses σsd(1) and
σsd(2) may be determined. The equal and opposite forces which result from
the inclusion of the non-prestressed steel are:
Fsd(1) = As(1)σsd(1) (6.27)

and

Fsd(2) = As(2)σsd(2) (6.28)

b εcu3 η fcd
Fcd = η fcdbλx1
x1 λx1

dp
MRd1

Ap εptd1 σpud1
Fptd1 = σpud1Ap

(a) Section Strain Stresses Forces

b εcu3 η fcd
ds(1)
σsd(1) Fsd(1)
As(1) x = x1 εsd(1) λx1 Fcd

ds(2) dp
MRd

Ap εptd1 σpud1 Fptd1

As(2) εsd(2) σsd(2) = fyd Fsd(2)
(b) Section Strain Stresses Forces

Figure 6.13 Doubly reinforced section at the ultimate limit state condition. (a) Cross-section
containing prestressed steel only. (b) Cross-section containing top and
bottom non-prestressed reinforcement.
246 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

When the depth to the compressive reinforcement is less than λx, the
compressive force Fsd(1) could be calculated as Fsd(1) = As(1)(σsd(1)−ηfcd), in
order to account for the voids in the compressive concrete created by the
compressive reinforcement.
If M Rd1 is the design resistance of the singly reinforced section in Figure
6.13a (calculated using Equation 6.9) and M Ed is the design moment (equal
to the minimum required strength of the doubly reinforced cross-section),
the minimum area of the tensile reinforcement is given by:

MEd − MRd1
As(2) = (6.29)
σsd(2)(ds(2) − ds(1))

For conventional non-prestressed steel, σsd(2) is usually at yield (i.e.

σsd(2) = fyd) provided that εsd(2) ≥ εyd and the depth to the neutral axis x satis-
fies the stated ductility requirements. For equilibrium, the forces in the top
and bottom non-prestressed steel are equal and opposite, i.e. Fsd(1) = Fsd(2),
since Fcd = Fptd. From Equations 6.27 and 6.28:

As(2)σsd(2)
As(1) = (6.30)
σsd(1)

If the depth to the neutral axis in Figure 6.13b is greater than about 0.3d,
then the section may be considered to be non-ductile and the value of x
must be reduced. An appropriate value of x may be selected (say x = 0.3d).
For this value of x, all the steel strains (εsd(1), εsd(2) and εptd) and hence all the
design steel stresses at ultimate limit state design condition (σsd(1), σsd92) and
σpud) may be determined. Once εptd is calculated from the assumed value
for x, the total strain in the prestressing steel εpud can be calculated using
Equation 6.15, and the stress σpud can be read directly from the stress–
strain curve. In this way, the magnitude of the tensile force in the tendon
(Fptd = Apσpud) and the compressive force in the concrete (Fcd = ηfcdλxb) can
be evaluated. If the required design resistance of the section M Rd exceeds
the design bending moment M Ed, the minimum area of compressive steel
can be obtained by taking moments about the level of the non-prestressed
tensile reinforcement:

MEd + Fptd (ds(1) − dp ) − Fcd (ds(2) − 0.5λx)

As(1) ≥ (6.31)
σsd(1)(ds(1) − ds(2))

Horizontal equilibrium requires that Fsd(2) = Fcd + Fsd(1) − Fptd and there-
fore the area of non-prestressed tensile steel is:

ηfcdλxb + As(1)σsd(1) − Apσpud

Ast(2) = (6.32)
σsd(2)
 Flexural resistance 247

EXAMPLE 6.6
Determine the additional non-prestressed steel required to increase the
design flexural resistance of the section in Figure 6.5 (and analysed in
Example 6.1) if the design bending moment M Ed is 1150 kNm. Take the
depth to the additional tensile steel as ds(2) = 690 mm and the depth to the
compressive steel (if required) as d s(1) = 60 mm. Assume for the reinforce-
ment fyd = 435 MPa and E s = 200,000 MPa.

From Example 6.1, MRd1 = 833 kNm and x1 = 195 mm. If only non-­prestressed
tensile steel were to be added, the lever arm z in Equation 6.26 would be:

z = 0.9 × (690 − 0.8 ×195) = 481 mm

and from Equation 6.25:

(1150 − 833) ×106

As(2) ≥ = 1515 mm2
435 × 481

This corresponds to the addition of five 20 mm diameter bars (1570 mm2)

in the bottom of the section at a depth ds(2) = 690 mm.
A check of the section to verify that M Rd ≥ 1150 kNm can next be made
using the trial-and-error procedure illustrated in Example 6.2. In this exam-
ple, however, the neutral axis depth increases above 0.3d, and the curva-
ture at the ultimate limit state condition is less than the minimum value
recommended in Equation 6.22. For this cross-section, it is appropriate to
supply the additional moment capacity via both tensile and compressive non-
prestressed reinforcement.
If the depth to the neutral axis is held constant at the value determined in
Example 6.1, i.e. x = x1 = 195 mm, then the stress and strain in the prestressed
steel remain as previously calculated, i.e. εpud = 0.0147 and σpud = 1456 MPa.
With ds(1) = 60 mm, from Equation 6.16:

0.0035(195 − 60)
εsd(1) = = 0.00242 > ε yd and σsd(1) = f yd = 435 MPa
195

From Equation 6.17:

0.0035(690 − 195)
εsd(2) = = 0.00888 > ε yd and σsd(2) = f yd = 435 MPa
195
248 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

The minimum areas of additional tensile and compressive steel are obtained
using Equations 6.29 and 6.30, respectively:

(1150 − 833) ×106

As( 2 ) ≥ = 1157 mm2
435 × (690 − 60)

1157 × 435
As(1) = = 1157 mm2
435

A suitable solution is to include four 20 mm diameter reinforcing bars in

the top and bottom of the section (at ds(1) = 60 mm and ds(2) = 690 mm).

6.5 FLANGED SECTIONS

Flanged sections such as those shown in Figure 6.14a are commonly used in
prestressed concrete construction, where the bending efficiency of I-, T- and
box-shaped sections can be effectively utilised. Frequently, in the construction
of prestressed floor systems, beams or wide bands are poured monolithically
with the slabs. In such cases, a portion of slab acts as either a top or a bot-
tom flange of the beam, as shown in Figure 6.14b. The effective flange width
(beff in Figure 6.14b) is selected such that the stresses across the width of the
flanged beam may be assumed to be uniform and beff depends on the beam

T-section Double-T-section Inverted-T-section

(a) Box sections

beff beff beff = bw

bw bw
(b)

Figure 6.14 Typical flanged sections. (a) Precast. (b) Monolithic.

 Flexural resistance 249

l0 = 0.85l1 l0 = 0.7 l2 l0 = 0.15 l1 + l3

A A A
l1 l2 l3
l0 = 0.15(l1 + l2)
(a)

beff
beff beff,1 beff,2

bw
bw b1 b1 b2 b2

b
(b)

Figure 6.15 Effective flange width parameters [1]. (a) Elevation – definitions of l 0.

(b) Effective beam cross-sections.

and slab dimensions, the span and the support conditions, the type of loading
and the amount and distribution of transverse reinforcement in the slab.
EN1992-1-1 [1] specifies the effective width in terms of the distance l 0
along the beam between the points of zero moment (as illustrated in Figure
6.15a) and the cross-sectional geometry (as defined in Figure 6.15b):

For T-sections: beff = beff,1 + beff,2 + bw (6.33)

For L-sections: beff = beff,1 + bw (6.34)

where:

beff,i = 0.2bi + 0.1l 0 ≤ 0.2l 0 (6.35)

except that the overhanging part of the effective flange should not exceed
half the clear distance to the next parallel beam (i.e. beff,i ≤ bi). In structural
analysis, it is permissible to assume that the effective width is constant
over the whole span, with the value of beff determined for the span section
(marked region A in Figure 6.15a).
It is recommended in ACI 318M-14 [2] that the overhanging part of the
effective flange on each side of the web of a T-beam should not exceed eight
times the slab thickness. For L-beams with a slab on one side only, the over-
hanging part of the effective flange width should not exceed six times the
slab thickness. Although these are not formal requirements of EN1992-1-1
[1], their satisfaction is recommended here.
250 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

The flexural resistance calculations discussed in Section 6.3 can also be

used to determine the flexural strength of non-rectangular sections. The
equations developed earlier for rectangular sections are directly appli-
cable provided the depth of the idealised rectangular stress block is less
than the thickness of the compression flange, i.e. provided the portion
of the cross-section subjected to the uniform compressive stress is rect-
angular (beff wide and λx deep). The design resistance M Rd is unaffected
by the shape of the concrete section below the compressive stress block
and depends only on the area and position of the steel reinforcement and
tendons in the tensile zone. If the compressive stress block acts on a non-
rectangular portion of the cross-section, some modifications to the for-
mulae are necessary to calculate the resulting concrete compressive force
and its line of action.
Consider the T-sections shown in Figure 6.16, together with the idealised
rectangular stress blocks (previously defined in Figure 6.3b). If λx ≤ t (as
in Figure 6.16a), the area of the concrete in compression A c is rectangular,
and the strength of the section is identical with that of a rectangular sec-
tion of width beff containing the same tensile steel at the same effective

beff εcu3 η fcd

λx λx
Fcd = η fcd λx beff
t x
MRd
Ac
Fptd = σpud Ap
Ap εptd σpud
As εsd σsd = fyd
Fsd = σsd As
bw
(a) Section Strain Stresses Forces

beff εcu3 η fcd

λx λx
t Fcdf = η fcd t beff
x
Fcdw = η fcd (λx – t)
A΄
MRd
Ap εptd σpud Fptd = σpud Ap
As εsd σsd = fyd Fsd = σsd As

bw
(b) Section Strain Stresses Forces

Figure 6.16 Flanged sections subjected to the design flexural resistance. (a) Compressive
stress block in the flange. (b) Compressive stress block in the flange and web.
 Flexural resistance 251

depth. Equation 6.21 may therefore be used to calculate the design resis-
tance of such a section. The depth of the neutral axis x may be calculated
using Equation 6.19, except that beff replaces b in the denominator.
If λx > t, the area of concrete in compression Ac is T-shaped, as shown
in Figure 6.16b. Although not strictly applicable, the idealised stress block
may still be used on this non-rectangular compressive zone. A uniform
stress of ηfcd may therefore be considered to act over the area A c.
It is convenient to separate the resultant compressive force in the concrete
into a force in the flange Fcdf and a force in the web Fcdw as follows (and
shown in Figure 6.16b):

Fcdf = ηfcdtbeff (6.36)

and

Fcdw = ηfcd(λx − t)bw (6.37)

By equating the tensile and compressive forces, the depth to the neutral
axis x can be determined by trial and error, and the design moment resis-
tance M Rd can be obtained by taking moments of the internal forces about
any convenient point on the cross-section.

EXAMPLE 6.7
Evaluate the design flexural resistance of the double-tee section shown in
Figure 6.17. The cross-section contains a total of twenty-six 12.9 mm diameter
strands (13 in each cable) placed at an eccentricity of 408 mm to the centroidal
axis. The effective prestressing force Pm,t is 3250 kN. The stress–strain rela-
tionship for the prestressing steel is shown in Figure 6.18, and its elastic modu-
lus and tensile strength are Ep = 195,000 MPa and fpk = 1,860 MPa, respectively.
The properties of the section and other relevant material data are as follows:

A = 371 × 103 mm2; I = 22.8 × 109 mm4; Zbtm = 43.7 × 106 mm3;
Ztop = 82.5 × 106 mm3; A p = 26 × 100 = 2,600 mm2;
fpd = 1,391 MPa; Ecm = 35,000 MPa; fck = 40 MPa; fcd = 26.67 MPa;
λ = 0.8 and η = 1.0.
252 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

2400
205 50

277

Centroidal axis 800

523 e = 408

1200 130 All dimensions in mm

Figure 6.17 Double-tee cross-section (Example 6.7).

3
1589 MPa fpk/γs = 1617 MPa
1
1500
fpd = 1391 MPa 2
Stress (MPa)

σp = 8110 εp+1333 (MPa)

1000

500

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 Strain
fpd/Ep = 0.007135 εud = 0.0315

Figure 6.18 Stress–strain curve for strand (Example 6.7).

Using the same procedure as was illustrated in Example 6.1, the strain
c­omponents in the prestressing steel are obtained from Equations 6.11
through 6.14:

1  3, 250 ×103 3, 250 ×103 × 4082 

εce =  +  = 0.000928
35, 000  371×103 22.8 ×109 

3, 250 ×103
εpe = = 0.00641
2, 600 ×195, 000

 685 − x 
εptd = 0.0035 
 x 
 Flexural resistance 253

and from Equation 6.15:

 685 − x 
εpud = 0.00734 + 0.0035  (6.7.1)
 x 

At this point, an assumption must be made regarding the depth of the equiva-
lent stress block. If x is less than the flange thickness, the calculation would
proceed as in the previous examples. However, a simple check of horizontal
equilibrium indicates that λx is significantly greater than the flange thickness
of 50 mm. This means that the entire top flange and part of the top of each
web is in compression. From Equation 6.36:

Fcdf = 1.0 × 26.67 × 50 × 2400 = 3200 ×103 N

In this example, the web is tapering and bw varies with the depth. The width
of the web at a depth of λx is given by:

λx
bw.λx = 210 − = 210 − 0.08 x
10

The compressive force in the web is therefore:

 205 + bw.λx 
Fcdw = 26.67 × ( 0.8 x − 50) ×  ×2
 2 
= −1.7069 x 2 + 8961.1x − 553, 400

The resultant compression force is the sum of the flange and web compres-
sive forces:

Fcd = Fcdf + Fcdw = −1.7069 x 2 + 8961.1x + 2, 647, 000

and the resultant tensile force in the tendons is:

Fptd = 2600 σpud

Equating Fcd and Fptd gives:

σpud = −0.0006565 x 2 + 3.4466 x + 1018.1 (6.7.2)

254 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Trial values of x may now be used to determine εpud and σpud from the previ-
ous expressions, and the resulting points are tabulated here and plotted on
the stress–strain curves in Figure 6.18:

Trial x εpud σpud (MPa) Point plotted on

(mm) Equation 6.7.1 Equation 6.7.2 Figure 6.18
150 0.0198 1520 1
140 0.0210 1488 2
144 0.0205 1500 3

Since point 3 lies sufficiently close to the stress–strain curve for the tendon,
the value taken for x is 144 mm.
The depth of the stress block is λx = 115.2 mm, which is greater than
the flange thickness (as was earlier assumed). The resultant forces on the
cross-section are:

Fcd = Fptd = 2600 ×1500 ×10 −3 = 3900 kN

For this section, x = 0.210dp < 0.3dp and therefore the failure may be
­considered to be ductile. The compressive force in the flange Fcdf = 3200 kN
acts 25 mm below the top surface, and the compressive force in the web
Fcdw = 700 kN acts at the centroid of the trapezoidal areas of the webs above
λx, i.e. 82.4 mm below the top surface.
By taking moments of these internal compressive forces about the level of
the tendons, we get:

MRd = 3200 × (685 − 25) ×10 −3 + 700 × (685 − 82.4) ×10 −3 = 2534 kNm

6.6 DUCTILITY AND ROBUSTNESS OF

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS

6.6.1 Introductory remarks

Ductility is the ability of a structure or structural member to undergo large
plastic deformations without significant loss of load carrying capacity.
Ductility is important for many reasons. It provides indeterminate struc-
tures with alternative load paths and the ability to redistribute internal
actions as the collapse load is approached. After the onset of cracking, con-
crete structures are non-linear and inelastic. The stiffness varies from loca-
tion to location depending on the extent of cracking and the reinforcement/
tendon layout. In addition, the stiffness of a particular cross-section or
 Flexural resistance 255

region is time-dependent, with the distribution of internal actions changing

under service loads due to creep and shrinkage, as well as other imposed
deformations such as support settlements and temperature changes and gra-
dients. All these factors cause the actual distribution of internal actions in
an indeterminate structure to deviate from that assumed in an elastic anal-
ysis. Despite these difficulties, codes of practice, including EN1992-1-1 [1],
permit the design of concrete structures based on elastic analysis. This is
quite reasonable provided the critical regions possess sufficient ductility
(plastic rotational capacity) to enable the actions to redistribute towards
the calculated elastic distribution as the collapse load is approached. If criti-
cal regions have little ductility (such as in over-reinforced elements), the
member may not be able to undergo the necessary plastic deformation and
the safety of the structure could be compromised.
Ductility is also important to resist impact and seismic loading, and to
provide robustness. With proper detailing, ductile structures can absorb
the energy associated with sudden impact (as may occur in an accident or
a blast or a seismic event) without collapse of the structure. With proper
detailing, ductile structures can also be designed to resist progressive
collapse.
Figure 6.19 shows the load–deflection curves for two prestressed concrete
beams, one under-reinforced (Curve A) and one over-reinforced (Curve B).
Curve A indicates ductile behaviour with large plastic deformations develop-
ing as the peak load is approached. The relatively flat post-yield plateau (1–2)
in Curve A, where the structure deforms while maintaining its full load carry-
ing capacity (or close to it) is characteristic of ductile behaviour. Curve B indi-
cates non-ductile or brittle behaviour, with relatively little plastic deformation
before the peak load. There is little or no evidence of a flat plastic plateau,
and the beam immediately begins to unload when the peak load is reached.

Curve B
(over-reinforced)
2
1
Load

Curve A
(under-reinforced)

Deflection

Figure 6.19 Ductile and non-ductile load–deflection curves.

256 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Structures with load–deflection relationships similar to Curve B in

Figure 6.19 are simply too brittle to perform adequately under signifi-
cant impact or seismic loading and they cannot resist progressive collapse.
Prestressed concrete beams can be designed to be robust and not to sud-
denly collapse when overloaded, but ductility is the key and a ductile load-
displacement relationship such as that shown as Curve A in Figure 6.19 is
an essential requirement. Structures should be designed to be robust, but
in most codes of practice qualitative statements rather than quantitative
recommendations are made and relatively little guidance is available. To
design a prestressed structure for robustness, some quantitative measure of
robustness is required.
Beeby [3] stated that a structure is robust if it is able to absorb dam-
age resulting from unforeseen events without collapse. He also argued
that this could form the basis of a design approach to quantify robustness.
Explosions or impacts are clearly inputs of energy. Beeby [3] suggests that
accidents or even design mistakes could also be considered as inputs of
energy and that robustness requirements could be quantified in terms of a
structure’s ability to absorb energy.
The area under the load–deflection response of a member or structure
is a measure of the energy absorbed by the structure in undergoing that
deformation. Consider the load–deflection response of a simply-supported
under-reinforced prestressed beam shown in Figure 6.20. The area under
the curve up to point 1 (before the tensile steel yields) is W1 and represents
the elastic energy. The area under the curve between points 1 and 2 (when the
plastic hinge develops and the peak load is reached) is W2 , which represents
the plastic energy. A minimum value of the ratio W2 /W1 could be specified
to ensure an acceptable level of ductility and, if all members and connec-
tions were similarly ductile and appropriately detailed, an acceptable level
of robustness (or resistance to collapse) could be achieved.

2
1
Load

W2

W1

Deflection
vyd vud

Figure 6.20 Typical under-reinforced load–deflection curve.

 Flexural resistance 257

A ductile simply-supported member is one for which W2 /W1 exceeds about

2.0, but for statically indeterminate structures where significant redistribu-
tion of internal actions may be required as the peak load is approached,
satisfaction of the following is recommended:

W2 /W1 ≥ 3.0 (6.38)

6.6.2 Calculation of hinge rotations

A typical moment curvature relationship for an under-reinforced pre-
stressed concrete cross-section was shown in Figure 1.15, and an idealised
elastic–plastic design moment–curvature curve is shown in Figure 6.21.
A plastic hinge is assumed to develop at a point in a beam or slab when the
peak (design ultimate) moment is reached at a curvature of κyd and rotation
of the plastic hinge occurs as the curvature increases from κyd to κud. The
rotation at the plastic hinge θs is the change in curvature multiplied by the
length of the plastic hinge lh in the direction of the member axis. For under-
reinforced cross-sections with ductile tensile reinforcement and tendons,
the length of the plastic hinge lh may be taken as 1.2 times the depth of
the member [1], i.e. lh = 1.2 h. The maximum rotation available at a plastic
hinge may therefore be approximated by:

θs = lh(κud − κyd) ≈ 1.2h(κud − κyd) (6.39)

6.6.3 Quantifying ductility and robustness

of beams and slabs
To investigate the ductility of a prestressed concrete beam, it is convenient
to assume that the load–deflection curve is elastic perfectly plastic. As an
example, consider the idealised load–deflection response shown in Figure
6.22 of a simply-supported prestressed concrete beam of span l and sub-
jected to a point load P applied at mid-span. The deflection is the downward

Moment, M
MRd

d
h ds p
Ap
As

(EcmIcr) Curvature, κ
κyd κud

Figure 6.21 Idealised elastic–plastic moment–curvature relationship.

258 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

Load
PRd
PRd

θs
W2
l/2 l/2

W1
Deflection
vyd vud

Figure 6.22 Idealised load–deflection curve.

deflection at mid-span caused by the applied load. A plastic hinge is assumed

to develop at mid-span when the applied load first reaches P Rd and the mid-
span deflection caused by P Rd is vyd. The design moment resistance at the
plastic hinge is M Rd = P Rdl/4. After the formation of the plastic hinge, it is
assumed that the deflection at mid-span increased from vyd to vud by rotation
of the plastic hinge through an angle θs, and this can be described as follows:

l θs
(vud − vyd ) = (6.40)
4

The design moment resistance at the plastic hinge M Rd may be deter-

mined from Equation 6.21 and may be expressed as:

 λx   λx 
MRd = σpud Ap  dp −  + fyd As  ds − ≈ β1bd 2 (6.41)
 2   2 

where b is the section width and d is the effective depth to the resultant of
the tensile forces in the prestressed and non-prestressed steel. The term β1
depends on the area, position and strength of the reinforcement and ten-
dons and is typically in the range of 3–10. For example, if we assume the
beam contains A p /bd = 0.005 and A s /bd = 0.005, with fck = 40 MPa,
E cm = 35,000 MPa, β1 is about 8. For the centrally loaded simply-supported
beam, the deflection Δyd caused by P Rd may be approximated as:

PRd l 3 MRd l 2
=vyd = (6.42)
48EcmIcr 12EcmIcr

and, for the stated material properties and steel quantities, the cracked
moment of inertia of the cross-section is approximated by:

Icr = 0.037bd 3 (6.43)

 Flexural resistance 259

Substituting Equations 6.41 and 6.43 into Equation 6.42 gives:

l2
vyd = (6.44)
1940d

and the elastic energy W1 (shown in Figure 6.22) may be approximated as:

PRdvyd
=
W1 = 0.00825bdl (6.45)
2

If we assume that satisfaction of Equation 6.38 is required for robustness,

the minimum internal plastic energy W2 that must be absorbed during the
hinge rotation is 3W1 = 0.0247bdl and this must equal the external work:

PRd (vud − vyd ) = W2 ≥ 0.0247bdl (6.46)

and substituting Equations 6.40 and 6.41 into Equation 6.46, we get:

(4Mu /l)(l θs / 4) = 8bd 2θs ≥ 0.0247bdl

l
∴ θs ≥ 3.09 × 10−3 (6.47)
d

It is evident that the plastic rotation required at the hinge at mid-span

depends on the span to effective depth ratio. To achieve a ductility corre-
sponding to W2 /W1 = 3.0, the minimum rotation required at the hinge at
mid-span and the span to final deflection ratio (l/vud) are determined from
Equations 6.47, 6.40 and 6.44 and given in the following table.

Minimum θs
l/d (rad) (l/vud)
10 0.031 77
14 0.043 56
18 0.056 43
22 0.068 35
26 0.080 30

In a simplified procedure, EN 1992-1-1 [1] suggests that the rotation θs

should be less than an allowable rotation given by the product of θpl.d and
k λ , where θpl.d is the basic value of allowable rotation given in Figure 6.23
for steel Classes B and C and tendons, and k λ is a factor that depends on
the shear slenderness. The values of θpl.d in Figure 6.23 apply for a shear
slenderness λ = 3. For different values of shear slenderness, k λ = (λ/3)0.5.
The shear slenderness λ is the ratio of the distance along the beam from the
260 Design of Prestressed Concrete to Eurocode 2

θpl,d (mrad)
35
Class C
30 Class B
≤ C50/60
25

20 C90/105

15

10
≤ C50/60
5
C90/105

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 x/d

Figure 6.23 Basic values of allowable rotation θpl,d when λ = 3 [1].

plastic hinge to the nearest point of zero moment (after redistribution) and
the effective depth d.

REFERENCES

1. EN 1992-1-1. 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1:

General rules and rules for buildings. British Standards Institution, London, UK.
2. ACI 318M-14. 2014. Building code requirements for structural concrete.
Detroit, MI: American Concrete Institute.
3. Beeby, A.W. 1999. Safety of structures, a new approach to robustness. The
Structural Engineer, 77(4), 16–21.