Text books

T1. P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth“Hydraulics And Fluid Mechanics Including Hydraulics

Machines” Standard Book House, 2002.
T2. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, “Fluid Mechanics in SI Units Fundamentals
and applications” Mc Graw Hill Education, publications.
R1. R.K.Bansal, “A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines”,
Laxmi publications
R2. K Subrmanya, “Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines”, Tata McGraw, New
Delhi.
 Assessments

Component Weightage % Marks

Assignment 1 10% 20
Mid term 25% 50
Assignment 2 10% 20
Quiz/Seminar 5% 10
End Term Exam 50 100

Total 100 200

 INTRODUCTION

Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both

stationary and moving bodies under the influence of forces. The
branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics,
while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called
dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion
(fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries.
Branches of Mechanics

Kinematics is a branch mechanics that describes the

motion of points, bodies, and systems of bodies
without considering the mass of each or the forces
that caused the motion.
kinetics is the branch of mechanics that is
concerned with the relationship between motion
and its causes, specifically, forces and torques.
 What is a fluid?

 By definition, a fluid is any material that is unable to withstand a static shear

stress.
 Unlike anelastic solid which responds to a shear stress with a recoverable
deformation, a fluid responds with an irrecoverable flow.
 Examples of fluids include gases and liquids.
 Difference between solid and fluid behavior
 Solid:
It can resist an applied shear by deforming
Stress is proportional to strain
 Fluid:
Deforms continuously under applied shear
Stress is proportional to strain rate

Fluid
Solid

F 
A  F
 V
A h
 Normal and shear stress at the surface of the fluid element

 In a fluid at rest, the normal

stress is called Pressure.
 The supporting walls of a fluid
eliminate shear stress, and
thus a fluid at rest is at a state
of zero shear stress.
 When the walls are removed
or a liquid container is tilted, a
Figure: For fluids at rest, the shear
stress is zero and pressure is the only shear develops and the liquid
normal stress splashes or moves to attain a
horizontal free surface
 Fluids (liquid and gas)

 A liquid takes the shape of the

container it is in and forms a free
surface in the presence of gravity

 A gas expands until it encounters

the walls of the container and fills
the entire available space. Gases
cannot form a free surface

 Gas and vapor are often used as

synonymous words
Figure: Unlike a liquid, a gas does not
form a free surface, and it expands to fill
the entire available space
 Intermolecular bonds
 Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
One reason is that molecules in solids are closely packed together,
Whereas in gases they are separated by relatively large distances.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases:

(a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid,
(b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase, and
(c) molecules move about at random in the gas phase
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
What is the necessity of studying fluids as an aspect of
engineering?
Fluids are already an integral part of our day-to-day life. Engineering allows us
to explore the potential of fluids for a number of new applications and various
functions. Some of these include:
a) There are number of fluids that when burnt, produce lots of heat, which
can be used for various applications. Examples of these fluids includes
petrol and diesel for vehicles.
Usually, automobile engines
make use of four strokes to turn
chemical energy into
mechanical energy with the
help of combustion of gases or
hydrocarbon fuel
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
b) There are some fluids like oil that have a tendency to exert very high pressure or force.
These fluids can be used for lifting various heavy loads. The fluids used in hydraulic
machines and hydraulic lifters are an example.

Pascal's Principe: The pressure

exerted anywhere in a confined
incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all
directions such that pressure
variations (initial differences)
remains same

Principle behind hydraulic lift

 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
c) Some fluids have excellent flow properties which can be used for the lubrication of
various machines.

Lubrication is the action of applying a

substance such as oil or grease to an engine
or component so as to minimize friction
and allow smooth movement.

Lubrication of Gears
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
d) Fluids like water posses kinetic and potential energy, which is used for generation of
electricity as in hydroelectric power plants.
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics helps us understand the behavior of fluid under various forces
and at different atmospheric conditions, and to select the proper fluid for
various applications.
This field is studied in detail within Civil Engineering and also to great extent in
Mechanical Engineering Chemical Engineering and Petroleum Engineering.
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by Dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to
the dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as Primary or fundamental Dimensions.
while others such as velocity V, Force F, and volume V are expressed in terms of the
primary dimensions and are called secondary Dimensions or Derived Dimensions

Dimensions
Fluid characteristics can be described qualitatively in terms of certain basic (primary)
quantities such as length [L], time [T], mass [M] and temperature [Θ]

 Quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by which various

quantities can be compared
 A standard for length might be a meter, for time an hour or second,
and for mass a kilogram; such standards are called units,
 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

 Units gives the quantitative measure of a quantity

 British Gravitational (BG) system
 International system (SI)
 English Engineering (EE) system

NOTE: Two systems of unit that are widely used in engineering systems of unit are BG and SI

 MLT
 SI (kg, m, s, K)

 FLT
 British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR)

 FMLT
 English Engineering (lbf, lbm, ft, s, oR)
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC VOLUME:
Density: mass per unit volume; (SI- kg/m3)
mass

volume
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume (Ѵ), which is defined as volume
per unit mass.
Volume
Ѵ
mass

Note:
 The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure.
 The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional
to temperature.
 Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible substances,
and the variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Specific Weight: weight per unit volume (SI- N/m3)

  weight  g
volume
 g acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s2)

Specific gravity: Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the

density of a well-known substance.
Then it is called Specific gravity or relative density,
and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which ρH2O
= 1000 kg/m3). That is, 
SG 
ρH2O @ 4O C
Example: 1 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one liter of a
liquid which weighs 7 N.
Example: 2
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of petrol of
specific gravity = 0.7
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force

per unit area exerted against a surface by the
weight of the air above that surface

In the diagram below, the pressure at point "X"

increases as the weight of the air above it
increases. The same can be said about
decreasing pressure, where the pressure at
point "X" decreases if the weight of the air
above it also decreases.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Patm = Unit weight of mercury X depth of mercury in barometer

= ϒmercury X h
= 13.6 X 9810 X 0.76
= 101,396 N/m2 or pa
= 101.3 KPa
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 VAPOUR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a
vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an
indication of a liquid's evaporation rate.

 When there is a lid on the container, the gas phase

molecules are trapped.
 Lid blocks exiting vapour
 Molecules in vapour phase collide with wall and cause a
pressure ( The vapour pressure)
 Evaporation rate = Condensation rate (at equilibrium)
 Change in Temp, change in evaporation, change in
vapour pressure
 Vapour pressure is a temperature dependent
VAPOUR PRESSURE VS TEMPERATURE
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VISCOSITY : When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other, a
friction force develops at the contact surface in the direction opposite to motion.
The situation is similar when a fluid moves relative to a solid or when two
fluids move relative to each other.
It appears that there is a property that
represents the internal resistance of a
fluid to motion or the “fluidity,” and that
property is the Viscosity.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body
in the flow direction is called the Drag
force and the magnitude of this force
depends on viscosity

NOTE: A fluid moving relative to a body exerts a drag force on the body, partly
because of friction caused by viscosity
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VISCOSITY :

To obtain a relation for viscosity,

consider a fluid layer between two very
large parallel plates (or equivalently,
two parallel plates immersed in a large
body of a fluid) separated by a distance.

Now a constant parallel force F is applied to the upper plate while the lower plate
is held fixed.
The fluid in contact with the upper plate sticks to the plate surface and moves with it at
the same velocity, and the shear stress t acting on this fluid layer is

F where A is the contact area between

Ʈ the plate and the fluid.
A
 VISCOSITY : PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Note: Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear
stress are called Newtonian fluids named after Sir Isaac Newton

In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed

by the linear relationship

𝑑𝑢
Shear stress Ʈ= μ
𝑑𝑦

where the constant of proportionality μ is called the coefficient of Viscosity or the

Dynamic (or absolute) Viscosity of the fluid.
Example: 3 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and

requires a force of 1.962N/m2 area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of
liquid between the plates.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Example: 3

Solution
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Example: 4

A plate having an area of 1m2 is dragged down an inclined plane at 450 to

horizontal with a velocity of 0.5m/s due to its own weight. There is a
cushion of liquid 1mm thick between the inclined plane and the plate. If
viscosity of oil is 0.1 Pa-s find the weight of the plate
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Example: 4

Solution
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Example: 5

Calculate dynamic viscosity of an oil which is used for lubrication between a

square plate of size 0.8 m X 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of
inclination of 300 as shown in figure. The weight of the square plate is 300
N it slides down the inclined plane with the uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The
thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Answer μ = 1.17 N-S/m2

 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Newtonian Fluids:
A fluid that behaves according to Newton's law, with a viscosity μ (absolute or
dynamic or simply viscosity) that is independent of the stress, is said to be
Newtonian Fluids.

For example: Gases, water and many common liquids can be considered
Newtonian in ordinary conditions.
 Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
 Also called “Linear” fluids
Non- Newtonian Fluids:
There are many fluids that significantly deviate from that law in some way or
other.
For example:
 Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids, toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
 Also called “Non-linear” fluids
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Newtonian Fluids :
 SURFACE TENSION
It is often observed that a drop of blood forms a hump on a horizontal glass; a
drop of mercury forms a near-perfect sphere and can be rolled just like a steel
ball over a smooth surface; water droplets from rain or dew hang from branches
or leaves of trees; a soap bubble released into the air forms a spherical shape;
and water beads up into small drops on flower petals
 SURFACE TENSION
In these and other observances, liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons
filled with the liquid, and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic
membrane under tension. The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to
the surface and is due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid.

The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension (σs) and is
usually expressed in the unit N/m
 SURFACE TENSION
To visualize how surface tension arises, we present a microscopic view in Fig. by
considering two liquid molecules, one at the surface and one deep within the liquid body.
 SURFACE TENSION
Derive the expression for excess pressure for
water droplet

Surface Tension: the intensity of the

molecular attraction per unit length along any
line in the surface and is designated by the
Greek symbol σ

The force due to surface tension = The force due to pressure difference

Where pi is internal pressure

and pe is the external pressure
 SURFACE TENSION
Derive the expression for excess pressure
for Soap Bubble:

4σ
Note: If a soap bubble is formed, ΔP =
𝑅
since soap bubble has two free surfaces
 Capillary Effect
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary effect , which
is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries
For example:
a) The rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a
kerosene lamp is due to this effect
b) The capillary effect is also partially responsible for the rise of water to the top
of tall trees.
 Capillary Effect
Wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is strong
compared to the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will wet the surface
and the level in a tube placed in a wetting liquid will actually be raised.

Non-wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is weak
compared to the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will not wet the
surface and the level in a tube placed in a non-wetting liquid will actually be
depressed

Φ less than 90 Φ greater than 90 Wetting fluid Non-Wetting fluid

 Capillary Effect
The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular tube can be determined from a
force balance on the cylindrical liquid column of height h in the tube

Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the weight gives
 Capillary Effect
Example: 6
A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20°C in a cup as shown in
figure. Determine the capillary rise of water in the tube. Take surface tension of
water at 200C is 0.073 N/m.

Answer:
Capillary rise (h) = 0.050 m or 5.0 cm
 Capillary Effect
Example: 7

A 0.8- mm -diameter glass tube is inserted into kerosene at 20 0C as shown in

figure. The contact angle of kerosene with a glass surface is 26°. Determine the
capillary rise of kerosene in the tube. Take surface tension of Kerosene at 20 0C
is 0.028 N/m and specific gravity of kerosene = 0.820.

Answer:
Capillary rise (h) = 16 mm
 Capillary Effect
Example: 8

A 1.2-mm-diameter tube is inserted into an unknown liquid whose density is

960 kg/m3, and it is observed that the liquid rises 5 mm in the tube, making a
contact angle of 15°. Determine the surface tension of the liquid.

Answer: surface tension of the liquid = 0.0146 N/m

 Capillary Effect
Example: 9

A capillary tube of 1.2 mm diameter is immersed vertically in water exposed

to the atmosphere. Determine how high water will rise in the tube. Take the
contact angle at the inner wall of the tube to be 60 and the surface tension to
be 1.00 N/m.

Answer:
Capillary rise (h) = 0.338 m
 PRESSURE:
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
Since pressure is defined as force per unit area,
it has the unit of newtons per square meter ( N/m2), which is called
a pascal ( Pa). That is, 1pa = 1 N/m2

Some basic pressure gages.

Absolute pressure
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute Pressure and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

Gauge pressure
is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure
and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gauge Pressure

vacuum pressure
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are
measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Relation between Absolute , Vacuum and Gauge pressure
Relation between Absolute and Gage pressure

Pgage = Pabs - Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

 Example :10

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 40 KPa at a location where the

atmospheric pressure is 100 KPa . Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.
 Pressure vs. Depth
 Suppose we had an object submerged in water with

the top part touching the atmosphere. If we draw an

FBD for this object, we would have three forces
1. The weight of the object

2. The force of the atmosphere pressing down

3. The force of the water pressing up

 Pressure vs. Depth

 But recall, pressure is force per unit area. So if we

solve for force; we can insert our new equation
 Pressure at a point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression
of being a vector.

However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it
has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.

Fig: Pressure is a scalar quantity,

not a vector quantity; the
pressure at a point in a fluid is
same in all directions
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

Pressure in a liquid at rest

In a room filled with a gas, the variation of
increases linearly with
pressure with height is negligible
distance from the free
surface.
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same
fluid.
 Pascal’s law
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the

ideal mechanical advantage of the
hydraulic lift.

Lifting of a large weight by a small force

by the application of Pascal’s law
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a

device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to
as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the
standard atmosphere, which is defined
as the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C
(ρHg = 13,600 kg/m3) under standard
acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81
The Barometer
m/s2)
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Example: 11

Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading

is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2. Assume the
temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.

Patm = 98.5 kPa

Patm = ρgh = 740 mm

= 13570 X 9.81 X 0.74 /1000 =0.74 m
= 98.5 kpa
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.

Figure: The basic manometer

In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure change across a

fluid layer of density  and height h is gh
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

A simple U-tube manometer, with

high pressure applied to the right
side.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Example: 12

A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank . The fluid used
has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as
shown in figure. If the local atmospheric pressure in 96 kPa, determine the
absolute pressure within the tank.
 Solution.
The reading of manometer attached to a tank is to be determined.
Assumptions The density of a gas in the tanks is much lower than the density of the
manometer fluid.
Properties The specific gravity of the manometer fluids is given to be 0.85. We take the
standard density of water to be 1000kg/m³.
Analysis The density of the fluid is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the
density of water,

ρ = SG ( p H2O ) = (0.85)(1000kg/m³) = 850 kg/m³

P = Patm + pgh
= 96 kPa + (850kg/m³)(9.81m/s²)(0.55m)
1000
= 100.6 kPa
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Example: 13
The left leg of a U-tube mercury manometer is connected to a pipe-line conveying
water, the level of mercury in the leg being 0.6 m below the center of pipe-line,
and the right leg is open to atmosphere. The level of mercury in the right leg is
0.45 m above that in the left leg and the space above mercury in the right leg
contains Benzene (specific gravity 0.88) to a height of 0.3 m. Find the pressure in
the pipe.
Solution.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Example: 14
The right limb of a simple u tube manometer containing mercury is open to the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific
gravity 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in
the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury
level in the two limbs is 20 cm.
Example: 15
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Consider a double - fluid manometer attached to an air pipe shown in figure. If

the specific gravity of one fluid is 13.55, determine the specific gravity of the
other fluid for the indicated absolute pressure of air. Take atmosphere pressure
to be 100 kPa.

Answer : SG2 = 1.34

Properties: The specific gravity of one fluid is given to be 13.55. We take the
standard density of water to be 1000 kg/m3
Analysis: Starting with the pressure of air in the tank, and moving along the tube
by adding (as we go down) or subtracting (as we go up) the ρgh terms until we
reach the free surface where the oil tube is exposed to the atmosphere, and
setting the result equal to Patm give:
Prepared By
Santhosh M B
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
 Classification of fluid flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of flow
When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between
them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal resistance to
flow is quantified by the fluid property Viscosity,.
Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by molecular
collisions in gases.
Viscous Flows: Flows in which frictional effects are significant
Inviscid Flow region: There are regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
 Classification of fluid flows
Internal versus External Flow
A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the
fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over a surface.

External Flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a weir, or
a pipe is external flow.
Example : Flow through Channels (Open Channel Flow)

The flow of liquids in a duct is called open

channel flow, if the duct is only partially filled
with the liquid and there is a free surface.

Internal Flow: The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
Example: Flow through Pipes
 Classification of fluid flows
Compressible versus in compressible flow
A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the
level of variation of density during flow.
Incompressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid does not change with change in external
force or pressure, is known as incompressible fluid. All liquid are considered in
this category.
Compressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while change in external force or
pressure, is known as compressible fluid. All gases are considered in this
category.
 Classification of fluid flows
Compressible versus in compressible flow
 Classification of fluid flows
laminar versus turbulent flow
Based on Reynold’s Number flows are Classified in to three types

Reynolds’ Number (R).

Reynold’s experiments involved injecting a dye (Potassium permanganet) streak

into fluid moving at constant velocity through a transparent tube.

Fluid type, tube diameter and the velocity of the flow through the tube were varied.
 Classification of fluid flows
laminar versus turbulent flow

Reynolds’ Results

Dye followed a straight

path.

Dye followed a wavy path

with streak intact.

Dye rapidly mixed through

the fluid in the tube
 Classification of fluid flows
laminar versus turbulent flow

Laminar Flow: every fluid molecule

followed a straight path that was parallel
to the boundaries of the tube.

Transitional Flow: every fluid molecule

followed wavy but parallel path that was
not parallel to the boundaries of the tube.

Turbulent Flow: every fluid molecule

followed very complex path that led to a
mixing of the dye.
 Classification of fluid flows
laminar versus turbulent flow
Example: 1

Find the Reynolds number if a fluid of viscosity 0.4 Ns/m2 and relative density
of 900 Kg/m3 through a 20 mm pipe with a Velocity of 2.5 m/s?

Answer: Re = 112.5
Here we observe that the value of Reynolds number is less than 2000, so the
flow of liquid is laminar.
 Example: 2

Calculate the Reynolds number if a fluid flows through a diameter of 80 mm with velocity 5
m/s having density of 1400 Kg/m3and having viscosity of 0.9 Kg/ms.

Answer: Re = 622.2
Here we observe that the value of Reynolds number is less than 2000, so the flow of liquid
is laminar.
 Classification of fluid flows
Steady versus unsteady flow
The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is
important to have a clear understanding of their meanings. The term steady implies no
change of properties , velocity, temperature, etc., at a point with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady.
 Classification of fluid flows
Uniform versus Non Uniform flow
The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified region. These
meanings are consistent with their everyday use (Steady person, uniform distribution,
etc.)
Uniform Flow: If depth of flow remains
constant from section to section is called
Uniform Flow
Example: Constant discharge through a
constant diameter pipe
Non - Uniform Flow: If depth of flow
does not remains constant from section
to section is called Non- Uniform Flow
Example: Constant discharge through a
variable diameter pipe
 Classification of fluid flows
one-two- and three dimensional flows
One-dimensional flow
All the flow parameters may be expressed as functions of time and one space
coordinate only.
The single space coordinate is usually the distance measured along the Centre-line in
which the fluid is flowing.

Example: the flow in a pipe is

considered one-dimensional when
variations of pressure and velocity
occur along the length of the pipe,
but any variation over the cross-
section is assumed negligible.
 Classification of fluid flows
one-two- and three dimensional flows
Two-dimensional flow
All the flow parameters are functions of time and two space coordinates (say x and y).
No variation in z direction.
The same streamline patterns are found in all planes perpendicular to z direction at any
instant.

Two dimensional flow over V Notch Weir

 Classification of fluid flows
one-two- and three dimensional flows
Three dimensional flow
The hydrodynamic parameters are functions of three space coordinates and time.
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity and
elevation and is valid in regions of steady incompressible flow where net
frictional forces are negligible as shown in figure.
Bernoulli equation valid

Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very

powerful tool in fluid mechanics. In this section,
we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying
the conservation of linear momentum principle,
and we demonstrate both its usefulness and its Bernoulli equation not valid
limitations.

Note: The key approximation in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that
viscous effects are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational and
pressure effects.
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
NOTE: Since all fluids have viscosity (there is no such thing as an inviscid fluid ),
this approximation cannot be valid for an entire flow field of practical interest.

Care must be exercised when applying the

Bernoulli equation since it is an
approximation that applies only to inviscid
regions of flow. In general, frictional effects
are always important very close to solid
walls ( Boundary layers) and directly
downstream of bodies (wakes).

Thus, the Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of

boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by the combined
effects of pressure and gravity forces.
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Assumptions and Limitations

1. The fluid is ideal. i.e. the viscosity is zero
2. The flow is steady
3. The flow is incompressible
4. The flow is irrational or the flow is along a stream line
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow.

Applying Newton’s second law

(Which is referred as linear
momentum equation in fluid
mechanics) in the S – direction on a
particle moving along a streamline
gives

Eqn -1
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, there is no pump or
turbine , and there is no heat transfer along the stream line , the significant forces
acting in the S – direction are pressure (acting on the both sides ) and component
of weight of the particle in the S –direction Shown in figure. Therefore, Eqn -1
becomes

𝑑𝑉
P dA - (P + dP)dA – W Sinϴ = m V Eqn -2
𝑑𝑆
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
where ϴ is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical Z-
axis at that point, m = ρV = ρ dA ds is the mass, W = mg = ρg dA ds is the
weight of the fluid particle, and sinϴ = dz / ds. Substituting,

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑉
- dP dA - ρg dA ds = ρ dA dsV Eqn -3
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑆

Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,

- dP - ρg dZ = ρ V dV Eqn -4
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Noting that V dV = ½ d(V 2) and dividing each term by ρ gives

𝑑𝑃 1
+ d (V2) +𝑔 𝑑𝑧 = 0
ρ 2

Integrating above equation

𝑑𝑃 𝑉2
Steady flow: ‫ ׬‬ρ + +𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
2

since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible
flow, the first term also becomes an exact differential, and its integration gives

𝑃 𝑉2
Steady, Incompressible flow: + +𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
ρ 2

ρ is constant
 Statement of Bernoulli’s energy equation or theorem
In a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid , the total energy at any section
of a flowing fluid is always a constant. The total energy includes pressure energy,
kinetic or velocity energy and potential or datum energy.

It can also be stated as in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total
head at any section of a flowing fluid is always a constant wherein the total head
includes pressure head, velocity or kinetic head and datum or potential head.

Pressure energy per unit weight or Pressure head

Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic/velocity

head

Potential energy per unit weight or

potential/datum head
 Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluid or Modified Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli’s equation has been derived for ideal and non-viscous fluid and
hence it is frictionless. But, in case of real fluid, the viscosity will be very much
present and hence, there will be energy or head loss between any two section
along the flowing fluid. Hence, the Bernoulli’s equation can be modified as

The difference of total head between any two sections of a flowing fluid along the
flow direction is given by the head loss between the two sections. Mathematically,
it can be stated as under:

Where hL is the head loss or the energy loss per unit weight between the two
sections of a flowing fluid.
Example 1

Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm2

and with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head or total energy per unit
weight of the water at a cross section , which is 5 m above the datum line.

Answer: Total head = 35.204 m

Ref: Example 6.1 Page No- 261

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example 2
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 20 cm and 10 cm at sections
1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litres/sec. the section 1 is
6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is
39.24 N/cm2 . Find the intensity of pressure at section 2.

Answer: Pressure at section 2 = 40.27 N/cm2

Ref: Example 6.4 Page No- 263

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
 Example 3:

A 0.25 m diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.8 at the rate of 120 liters
per second and the pressure at a point A is 19.62 kN/m2 (gage). If the point A is
3.5 m above the datum line, calculate the total energy at point A in meters of oil.

Answer: Total Energy = (2.5 + 0.31 + 3.5) = 6.31 m of oil

Ref: Example 7.1 Page No- 327

P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth“Hydraulics And Fluid Mechanics
Including Hydraulics Machines” Standard Book House,
2002.
Example 4:

A 0.3 m pipe carries water at a velocity of 24.4 m/s. At points A and B

measurements of pressure and elevation were respectively 361 kN/m2 and 288
kN/m2 and 30.5 m and 33.5 m . For steady flow, find the loss of head between A
and B

Answer: Head loss= (97.64 – 93.20) = 4.44 m

Ref: Example 7.2 Page No- 327

P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth“Hydraulics And Fluid Mechanics
Including Hydraulics Machines” Standard Book House,
2002.
Example 5:

A pipeline carrying oil of specific gravity 0.9, changes in diameter from 300 mm diameter
at a position A to 600 mm diameter at a position B which is 4 m at a higher level. If the
pressures at A and B are 6.81 N/cm2 and 8.88 N/cm2 respectively and the discharge is 200
liters/s , determine the loss of head and direction of flow.
Example 6:

Oil of specific gravity 0.90 flows in a pipe 300 mm diameter at the rate of 120
lites/second and the pressure at a point A is 24.525 kpa. If point A is 5.2 m
above the datum line , calculate the total energy at point A in terms of
meters of oil.

Ans: TH = 8.125 m
Example 7

Answer: P2 = 172.45 kpa

Applications of Bernoulli Equation
 FLOW RATE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
A major application in the area of fluid mechanics is the determination of the
flow rate of fluids, and numerous devices have been developed over the years
for the purpose of flow metering.

Flowmeters range widely in their level of sophistication, size, cost, accuracy,

versatility, capacity, pressure drop, and the operating principle.
We give an overview of the meters commonly used to measure the flow rate of
liquids and gases flowing through pipes or ducts.
We limit our consideration to incompressible flow.

A primitive (but fairly accurate) way of measuring

the flow rate of water through a garden hose
involves collecting water in a bucket and recording
the collection time.

NOTE:
Discharge (Q) = Area of flow X Velocity
Discharge (Q) = Volume of water collected in a unit time 34
 Practical Applications of Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli’s Equation is applied in all problems of incompressible flow where
energy considerations are involved. But we shall consider application to the
following measuring devices :
1) Venturimeter
2) Orifice meter
3) Pitot -tube
 Practical Applications of Bernoulli Equation
1) Venturimeter

Venturimeter is a device used to measure the flow rate or discharge of fluid

through a pipe. Venturimeter is an application of Bernoulli’s equation. Its basic
principle is also depends on the Bernoulli equation i.e. velocity increases
pressure decreases.

Venturi meter is very simple in construction. It has following parts which are
arranged in systematic order for proper operation these are
a) inlet section called as converging cone,
b) cylindrical throat and
c) gradually diverging cone
Let the region before convergent region be section 1 and throat region be
section 2 .
Let,
d1= diameter at inlet V1 = velocity at inlet
P1= pressure at inlet A1 = Area at inlet

Similarly,
d2 = diameter at throat V2 = velocity at throat
P2 = pressure at throat A2 = Area at throat
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 &2

(P1/ρg)+( V1 2/2g)+Z1 = (P2/ρg)+( V2 2/2g)+Z2

As the pipe is horizontal, so Z1 = Z2

(P1-P2)/ρg = (V2 2 – V1 2) / 2g

The difference of pressure heads measured is called “h” .

Since h = (P1-P2)/ρg

h = (V2 2 – V1 2) / 2g Eqn-1
Substituting V1 in eqn -1

Eqn-2
Eqn-2 gives the discharge under ideal condition and is ,called theoretical discharge .
Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge

Eqn-3
Example 1

A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm

respectively is used to measure flow of water . The reading of differential
monometer connected to the inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine
the rate of flow take Cd =0.98.

Answer: Q = 125.756 lit/s

Ref: Example 6.10 Page No- 271

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example 2

An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a orificemeter having inlet diameter
20 cm and orificemeter diameter 10 cm. The oil-mercury differential monometer
shows a reading of 25 cm of mercury. Calculate the discharge of oil through the
Orificemeter . Take Cd =0.61.

Answer: Q = 48 lit/s

Ref: Example 6.11 Page No- 271

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example 3

A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm is

used to measure the flow of oil of sp.gravity = 0.8. The discharge of oil through
venturimeter is 60 litres/sec. Find the reading of the oil-mercury differential
monometer. Take Cd = 0.98

Answer: X = 18.12 cm

Ref: Example 6.12 Page No- 271

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
 Practical Applications of Bernoulli Equation
2) Orifice meter or Orifice plate
Orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe. It consists of flat circular plate which has a circular hole, in concentric with the pipe.
This is called orifice.

Construction and Working

The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline

causes an increase in flow velocity and a
corresponding decrease in pressure.

The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross section beyond the orifice plate, with
a maximum velocity and minimum pressure at the venacontracta.
Example 1

An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is inserted in a pipe of 20 cm

diameter. The pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice
meter gives readings of 19.62 N/cm2 and 9.81 N/cm2 respectively. Co-efficient of
discharge for the orifice meter is given as 0.6. Find the discharge of water through
pipe.

Answer: Q = 68.21 lit/s

Ref: Example 6.22 Page No- 284

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example 2

An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm

diameter. The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential
monometer on the two sides of orifice meter gives a reading 50 cm of mercury.
Find the rate of flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9 when the Co-efficient of
discharge for the orifice meter is 0.64.

Answer: Q = 137.414 lit/s

Ref: Example 6.23 Page No- 284

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example 3

Ref: Example 6.14 Page No- 300

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid
Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi
publications, New. Delhi
Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes
The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the liquid reaches a
height above the free surface of the water stream.
Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the hydrostatic pressure
due to its depth below the free surface, the difference in level between the liquid in
the glass tube and the free surface becomes the measure of dynamic pressure.

Simple Pitot Tube (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure
(b) Static and Stagnation tubes together
 Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes

Close-up of a Pitot-static probe, showing

Measuring flow velocity with a the stagnation pressure hole and two of
Pitot-static probe. (A manometer the five static circumferential pressure
may be used in place of the holes.
differential pressure transducer.)
Example 1

The static and stagnation pressures of a fluid in a pipe are measured by a

piezometer and a pitot tube to be 200 kpa and 210 kpa, respectively. If the

density of the fluid is 550 kg/m3, the velocity of fluid is

Ans: V = 6.03 m/s

Ref: Example 5-126 Page No- 241
Yunus A, Cengel, John.M.Cimbala“Fluid Mechanics, -
Fundamentals and Applications”, McGraw Hill.
Example 2

The static and stagnation pressures of a fluid in a pipe are measured by a

piezometer and a pitot tube. The heights of the fluid in the piezometer and

pitot tube are measured to be 2.0 m and 2.2 m, respectively. If the density of

the fluid is 5000 kg/m3 , the velocity of the fluid in the pipe is

Ans: V = 1.98 m/s

Ref: Example 5-126 Page No- 241
Yunus A, Cengel, John.M.Cimbala“Fluid Mechanics, -
Fundamentals and Applications”, McGraw Hill.
Prepared By
Santhosh M B
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
 INTRODUCTION
• Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and
cooling applications and fluid distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through
a flow section.

• We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the pressure

drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.
• The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement.
 Reynolds number
After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds
discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is called
the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a
circular pipe as
 Loss of energy in pipes
Classification
1. Major losses
It is due to friction

2.Minor losses
Sudden expansion of pipe
Sudden contraction of pipe
Bend in pipe
Pipe fittings
An obstruction in pipe
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss

A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop ∆P

since it is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to
maintain flow.

a) Darcy-Weisbach equation for head losses in pipes (major head losses):

f=co-efficient of friction which is function of

Reynolds number

L=length of pipe
V=mean velocity of flow
d=diameter of pipe

Note: The head loss represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised
by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe
 Pipe flow head loss is (Major losses)

 proportional to the length of the pipe

 proportional to the square of the velocity (high Reynolds

number)

 Proportional inversely with the diameter of the pipe

 increasing with surface roughness

 independent of pressure
(b).Chezy’s Formula for loss of head due to friction in pipes
expressed as;

where;

C=Chezy’s constant
 Example:1
Find the head loss due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 50
m, through which water is flow at a velocity of 3 m/s using a) Darcy formula, b)
Chezy’s formula for which C = 60. Take kinematic viscosity of water = 0.01
stoke.

Answer: Head loss based on Darcy formula = 0.7828 m

Head loss based on Chezy’s formula = 1.665 m

Ref: Example 11.1 Page No- 467

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Solution:
 Example:2
Find the diameter of a pipe of length 2000m when the rate of flow of water
through the pipe is 200 litres/sec and head loss due to friction is 4 m. Take the
value of C = 50 in Chezy’s formulae.

Answer: Diameter of a pipe = 553 mm.

Ref: Example 11.2 Page No- 468

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Solution:
 Example:3
A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe of
diameter 300 mm at the rate of 300 liters/sec. Find the head loss due to
friction for a length of pipe 50 m.

Answer: Head loss due to friction = 3.61 m

Ref: Example 11.3 Page No- 468

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Solution:
 Minor losses through pipe

The loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in

magnitude or direction is called minor loss of energy.
The minor loss of energy includes;-
1)Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
2)Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3)Loss of head due to bend in pipe
4)Loss of head in various pipe fittings.
5)Loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe
1.Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:-

he = (V1-V2)2/2g
Where
V1,V2= Velocity of liquid at area 1 and 2 in pipe
he = Loss at entrance of pipe
 Loss of head due to sudden Contraction of pipe

1
KL = [ -1 ]2
𝐶𝑐
If Cc is not given take head loss due to contraction as
hc = 0.5(V2)2/2g Cc = Ac/A2

Where
V2= Velocity of liquid at area 2 in pipe
hc = Loss at entrance of pipe
Example:1
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to
a diameter of 400 mm . The rate of flow of water through pipe is 250 litres/sec

Answer: he = 1.816 m

Ref: Example 11.8 Page No- 474

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
D2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Q = 250 litres/sec = 250/1000 = 0.25 m3/sec
he = (V1-V2)2/2g
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
he = (7.96 -1.99)2 / (2 X 9.81)
Q = A1V1
0.25 m3/sec = (π/4)0.22 X V1
he = 1.816 m of water
V1 = 7.96 m/s
Q = A2V2
0.25 m3/sec = (π/4)0.42 X V2
V2 = 1.99 m/s
Example:2
At a sudden enlargement of water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the
hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Estimate rate of flow.

Answer: Q = 32.75 litres/sec

Ref: Example 11.9 Page No- 474

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Example:3
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of
250 mm. The pressure intensities in the large and smaller pipe is given as 13.73
N/cm2 and 11.772 N/cm2 respectively. Find the loss of head due to contraction
if Cc = 0.62. Also determine the rate of flow of water.

Answer: hc = 0.571 m
Q = 268.3 litres/sec

Ref: Example 11.11 Page No- 476

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Flow through pipe in series or flow through compound
pipe
If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up several pipes of different
diameter D1,D2,D3 etc..,and length L1,L2,L3, etc...all connected in
series(end to end),then the system is called pipes in series, in such case.
a)The difference in liquid surface level in this two reserviour is equal to
sum of the head losses in all the section.
i.e.,

FIG:-Flow through pipe in series

Example:1
The difference in water surface levels in two tanks, which are connected by
three pipes in series of lengths 300 m, 170 m and 210 m and of diameters 300
mm, 200 mm and 400 mm respectively, is 12 m. Determine the rate of flow of
water if co-efficient of friction are 0.005 , 0.0052 and 0.0048 respectively,
considering: a) Minor losses also b) Neglecting minor losses.

Answer: a) Q = 99.45 litres/sec

b) Q = 102.1 litres/sec

Ref: Example 11.30 Page No- 503

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
 Example:2
Three pipes of 400 mm , 200 mm and 300 mm diameters have lengths of 400
m, 200 m and 300 m respectively. They are connected in series to make a
compound pipe. The ends of this compound pipe are connected with two tanks
whose difference in levels is 16 m. If co-efficient of friction for these pipes is
same and equal to 0.005, determine the discharge through the compound pipe
neglecting first the minor losses and then including them
Answer:
a) Q = 0.1108 m3/sec
b) Q = 0.1085 m3/sec

Ref: Example 11.30 (A) Page No- 505

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
 FLOW THROUGH PIPE IN PARALLELL
When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream side and continue as a main line, the pipe are said to
be parallel.

H1 = H2
 Example:1
A main pipe divides in to two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as
shown in figure. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m
and 1 m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2nd parallel pipe are
2000 m and 0.8 m . Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe , if total flow in
the main is 3.0 m3/s . The co-efficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same
and equal to 0.005.

Answer: a) Q1 = 1.906 m3/sec

b) Q2 = 1.094 m3/sec

Ref: Example 11.32 Page No- 509

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Given
L1 = 2000 m
L2 = 2000 m
d1 = 1m
d2 = 0.8 m
Q = 3 m3/s
Q1 = ?
Q2 = ?

From Figure-1

Q = Q 1 + Q2
3 = Q1 + Q2 eqn-1
For parallel pipe system
Head loss remains constant
Hf)1 = Hf)2
4f1L1V12/d12g = 4f2L2V22/d22g
4f1L1V12/d12g = 4f2L2V22/d22g (cancel constant terms)
V12/d1 = V22/d2
V12/1.0 = V22/0.8
V1 = V2/0.894
Q1 = A1V1 = π/4(d12) X V2/0.894
Q2 = A2V2 = π/4(d22) X 0.64V2

Substitute Q1 and Q2 Value in eqn -1

And find V2
V2 = 2.17 m/s
V1 = 2.427 m/s
Q1 = 1.906 m3/s
Q2 = 1.094 m3/s
 Example:2
A main pipe divides in to two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as
shown in figure. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 3000 m
and 0.8 m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2nd parallel pipe are
3000 m and 0.6 m . Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe , if total flow in
the main is 3.8 m3/s . The co-efficient of friction for pipe 1 = 0.0052, and for
pipe 2 = 0.0048

Answer: a) Q1 =
b) Q2 =

Ref: Example 11.32 Page No- 509

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
 FLOW THROUGH EQUIVALENT PIPE
Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of
varying diameter and length is to be replaced by a
pipe of uniform diameter, known as Equivalent
pipe. The uniform diameter of equivalent pipe is
known as Equivalentdiameter.
Example: 1

Three pipes of length 800 m, 500 m and 400 m and of diameters 500 mm, 400 mm
and 300 mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are to be replaced by a
single pipe of length 1700 m. Find the diameter of single pipe.

Answer: d = 371.8 mm

Ref: Example 11.31 Page No- 508

Dr. R.K Bansal, “A text book of Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulic Machines” Laxmi publications, New. Delhi
Problem: 1 A pipe line of 60 cm diameter bifurcates at a y- junction into two
branches 40 cm and 30 cm in diameter. If the rate of flow in the main pipe is
1.5 m3/s and mean velocity of flow in 30 cm diameter pipe is 7.5 m/s,
determine the rate of flow in the 40 cm diameter pipe.

Answer: Q = 0.97 m3/s

Answer: V1 = 0.413 m/s
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters
20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in 30 cm diameter pipe is
2.5 m/s, find discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if
the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s.