2.

5 ATOMS
• Over 2000 years ago, Democritus, a Greek philosopher, proposed that everything is made
of tiny pieces called atoms.

• He suggested that if you keep dividing a substance, you’d eventually reach a piece so small
that it couldn’t be divided further.

• The term “atom” comes from the Greek word meaning “indivisible” or “cannot be
divided.”

Different types of Atom

• Some substances are made of a single kind of atom, called an element.
• Examples of elements: carbon, gold, and silver (made of only their respective atoms).
• Each type of atom has unique properties.
• Different atoms give elements distinct properties.

Atoms joining together

• In elements like neon (a gas), atoms move freely and are not connected.
• In elements like gold and metals, atoms are tightly packed.
• Some elements, like oxygen and sulfur, form particles by joining atoms together.
o An oxygen particle has two oxygen atoms.
o A sulfur particle has eight sulfur atoms.

Arranging the elements

• Scientists organize elements in the periodic table.
• It includes all 118 known elements:
o 94 natural elements.
o 24 man-made elements.
• The periodic table is large and complex.

Groups and periods

• The periodic table is organized into rows and columns.
 • Rows are called periods.
• Columns are called groups.
• Atoms in the periodic table are organized by increasing mass across each row (period)
from left to right.
• Hydrogen has the smallest mass, followed by helium, lithium, and so on.

Chemical symbols
• Each element has a symbol as a shorthand reference.
• The symbol can be:
• The first letter of the English name (e.g., O for oxygen).
• The first letter and another letter from the English name (e.g., He for helium).
• Taken from a name in another language (e.g., Na for sodium, from Latin Natrium).
• The first letter of the symbol is always uppercase, and the second letter (if any) is
lowercase.

Metals and non-metals

The periodic table groups elements with similar properties close together.
• Metals are shown in yellow boxes.
• Non-metals are shown in blue boxes.

What is a compound?
• An element is made of only one type of atom.
• many substance is made of more than one type of atom. If atoms are tightly joined
together, the substance is a compound.
• Bonding is the chemical term for atoms joining tightly.
• In a compound, two or more different kinds of atoms are bonded.
• Example: Sodium chloride is formed when sodium atoms bond with chlorine atoms.

Properties of elements and compounds

• A compound is very different from the elements it is made of.
 • When two different elements are bonded, they lose their original properties
• The compound has new, distinct properties that are different from those of the elements.

Naming compounds
Each compound has a chemical name that usually tells you the elements it is made of.

Rules for naming compunds

• If the compound contains a metal, the metal’s name comes first.
• If the compound contains a non-metal, the non-metal’s name is often changed (e.g.,
chlorine becomes chloride).
• When two elements form a compound, the name often ends in -ide.
o Example: Sodium and chlorine form sodium chloride, not sodium-chlorine.
• Some compounds contain two elements plus oxygen.
• These compounds often have names ending in -ate.
o Example: A compound of calcium, carbon, and oxygen is called calcium carbonate.
• Carbon dioxide is made of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms (di means two).
• Carbon monoxide is made of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom (mon or mono
means one).

Particle diagrams
• Particle diagrams show which atoms of which elements make up a particle.
To identify a compound:
o Look for different kinds of atoms bonded together in the diagram.
Examples of compounds: Carbon dioxide, water, and methane (particles have different atoms).
• Oxygen is an element because its particles are made of the same kind of atom.

Using formulae
• Every compound has a chemical name (e.g., sodium chloride).
• Some compounds also have an everyday name (e.g., sodium chloride is common salt).
• Every compound has a formula, showing the symbols of the elements bonded in the
compound.
 • A small number written below and to the right of a symbol shows how many atoms of
that element are in the compound.
• If there is no number, it means there is only one atom of that element.

2.7
Compounds and mixture
• When atoms bond to form a compound, the compound’s properties are completely
different from those of the elements it is made from.
Example:
o Iron: A hard, gray, magnetic metal that conducts heat and electricity.
o Sulfur: A yellow, brittle, non-magnetic non-metal that does not conduct heat or
electricity.
• When heated together, they form iron sulfide, a compound that is non-magnetic and
does not conduct heat or electricity.

Air is a mixture
• Mixing iron and sulfur creates a mixture of two elements.
• In science, pure means containing only one substance (e.g., pure water contains only
water).
• A mixture is not pure; it contains different types of particles mixed together.
• Mixtures can include elements, compounds, or water in solid, liquid, or gas form.
Example:
Air is a mixture of elements and compounds like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and small amounts of other gases.

Composition of Air
• The composition of air varies because the amount of water vapor changes with the
weather.
• The amount of carbon dioxide in the air also changes due to:
Natural processes, such as:
o Animals and plants producing carbon dioxide during respiration.
 o Plants removing carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Human activities, such as:
o Burning fossil fuels.
o Other forms of pollution, which increase carbon dioxide levels.

Mineral water is a mixture

• Mineral water is a mixture of water and dissolved minerals.
• The minerals are dissolved, making the mineral water a solution.

Chapter 8
Physical properties
The physical properties of a substance are features such as
o what color it is
o If it is a solid, liquid, or gas,
o what its boiling or melting temperature is
o If it is heavy or light.
For example,
• some of the physical properties of iron are that it is gray, heavy, solid, with a melting point
of 1538 degrees centigrade.

• One of the physical properties of hydrochloric acid is that it is a colorless acid.

Chemical properties
Chemical properties describe how a substance reacts or behaves in chemical changes such as
o How acidic or allaline it is
o How it reacts with water, acids or metals.
o How readily it reacts.
• Iron reacts with sulfur when heated to form iron sulfide.
• Iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust).
• Hydrochloric acid has a pH of 2 and is very acidic.

Chemical changes
Chemical changes are different from physical changes.

• Physical change: No new substances are formed.

Example: When water freezes, it changes from liquid to solid, but it is still water.

• Chemical change: New substances are formed.

Example: When iron and sulfur are heated, they form a new substance called iron sulfide.

• Iron and sulfur react to form a new substance.

A chemical reaction occurs when iron atoms bond with sulfur atoms.

• Reactants: The starting substances (iron and sulfur).

• Product: The new substance made (iron-sulfide).

• In this reaction, there is only one product, iron-sulfur

Chemical reactions happen everywhere

• Some chemical reactions cause a substance to break apart and form new substances.

• Example: Water can split into oxygen and hydrogen.

• Chemical reactions occur inside plants during growth and decay.

• Chemical reactions also happen inside the body, like during digestion, to keep you alive.

Burning
• Burning is a chemical reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen in the air.
 • Ashes may be left behind, which contain new substances that have been oxidized.

• Charcoal is made of carbon; when it burns, it combines with oxygen to form carbon
monoxide gas.

• Magnesium burns to form a white powder called magnesium oxide, which is made from
magnesium and oxygen.

• In this reaction, magnesium and oxygen are the reactants, and magnesium oxide is the
product.

• The chemical property of magnesium is that it burns in air to form magnesium oxide.

Reactions with water

• Some substances react quickly with water, while others do not react at all.

• Potassium is a soft metal that can be cut with a knife (a physical property).

• Chemical property of potassium: It is so reactive that it must be stored under oil to

prevent it from reacting with water vapor in the air.

• When a small piece of potassium is placed in water, it produces hydrogen gas.

• The reaction releases so much heat that the hydrogen gas catches fire.

Reactions with Acid

• When magnesium is placed in hydrochloric acid, bubbles of gas are produced.

• Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form new substances: hydrogen gas and
magnesium chloride.

• This reaction demonstrates a chemical property of magnesium, as it reacts with acid to

form these new substances.

How to test a gas to find out if it is Hydrogen

• When bubbles form in a reaction, it means a gas is being produced.

• However, you cannot always tell what type of gas it is just by seeing the bubbles.

• To test if a gas is hydrogen, you can perform the squeaky pop test.

• Light a splint and place it at the mouth of the test tube containing the gas.

• Keep your finger over the end of the test tube until the last moment to avoid losing
hydrogen gas, as it is lighter than air.
 • If the gas is hydrogen, it will burn with a squeaky pop, reacting with oxygen in the air to
form water.

• Hydrogen can also be collected on a larger scale by trapping the gas produced in a reaction
over water.

Chapter 9
Current
• A cell stores chemical energy, which can be converted into electrical energy in a circuit.

• A battery contains two or more cells.

• Cells, batteries, and power supplies have two terminals, which are labeled with positive
(+) and negative (−) symbols.

• In a circuit, the negative terminal pushes electrons around the wires.

• Atoms make up all materials, and an electron is a type of smaller particle in an atom.

• The flow of electrons in the circuit is called current.

More about electrons

• In metals, some electrons are free to move, meaning they can travel through the metal.

• These electrons move randomly when not in a circuit.

• When the metal is placed in a circuit, all the electrons move in the same direction.
 • Electrons have a negative charge.

• Opposite charges attract (positive and negative), and like charges repel (positive and
positive, or negative and negative).

• Electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the power supply and repelled from
the negative terminal.

• If there is a break in the circuit, all electrons stop flowing, as electrons can only flow in a
complete circuit.

9.2
Circuit diagrams
Advantages of circuit diagrams compared with pictures

• Circuit diagrams are easier to draw than actual physical circuits.

• Components in the circuit have standard symbols, making it simpler to understand and
interpret.

• Wires are represented by straight lines, which makes the diagram clear and easy to read.

Circuit symbols
 • Components and circuits look different in real life.
• Standard symbols are used in diagrams to avoid confusion.
• These symbols are the same everywhere.
• In a cell symbol, the longer line is positive, and the shorter line is negative.

Take care when drawing circuit diagrams.

• Ensure there are no gaps in the lines, especially at corners and where wires connect to
components.

• Wires should not be drawn through components.

Comparing circuit diagrams

• Different circuits are designed for different jobs.

• This circuit includes a cell, a switch, and a buzzer.

• It could be used as a doorbell.

• When the switch is pushed, the buzzer sounds, attracting attention inside.

Circuit for a lamp

• This circuit has a cell, a switch, a lamp, and an ammeter.

• The ammeter measures the current in the circuit.

• It can be used to light a room and check the current.

• A low current means the cell is running out of energy.

• The lamp will get dimmer, but you might not notice until it goes out.