MODULE 4

ISO-OSI Model
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that
explains how different computer systems communicate over a network
• The OSI Model consists of 7 layers

• Layer 1 – Physical Layer

o The lowest layer of the OSI reference model

o It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices
o The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
o Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next
Functions of the Physical Layer

1. Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock
2. Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the
transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second
3. Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network
4. Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data
flows between the two connected devices.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to
the receiver.
2. Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
3. Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
5. Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks.
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the

network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer
at the destination station reassembles the message.
 • Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of

connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.

• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
• This layer serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.

• Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a

remote host.

• File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application

allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a
remote host, and manage or control files from a remote
computer.

• Mail Services: Provide email service.

• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects
and services.
 Comparison between ISO OSI and TCP/IP model.

Difference Between Connection-oriented and Connection-less

Services
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to Connection-less service is related to

the telephone system. the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred Connection-less Service is preferred

by long and steady communication. by bursty communication.

Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
compulsory.

Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is feasible.
feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service,

Congestion is not possible. Congestion is possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give

guarantee of reliability. a guarantee of reliability.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets In connection-less Service, Packets do

follow the same route. not follow the same route.

Socket
• socket is serves as an endpoint for sending and receiving data
across the network.
• Socket address is composed of an IP address and a port number.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
• TCP protocol provides transport layer services to applications.
• TCP protocol is a connection-oriented protocol.
• A secured connection is being established between the sender
and the receiver.
• The data transmitted by TCP protocol is in the form of continuous
byte streams.
• A unique sequence number is assigned to each byte.
• With the help of this unique number, a positive acknowledgment
is received from receipt.
• If the acknowledgment is not received within a specific period the
data is retransmitted to the specified destination.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

• User Datagram Protocol provides a nonsequential transmission of
data.
• It is a connectionless transport protocol.
• User Datagram is defined as a packet produced by User Datagram
Protocol.
• Services provided by User Datagram Protocol(UDP) are
connectionless service, faster delivery of messages, checksum,
and process-to-process communication.

Network Layer Protocols

1. IP (Internet Protocol)
 • IP stands for Internet Protocol.
• Internet Protocol helps to uniquely identify each device on the
network
• Internet protocol is responsible for transferring the data from one
node to another node in the network.
• The Internet Protocol is divided in two types. They are:
• IPv4:
• IPv4 provides with the 32 bit address scheme
• IPv4 addressing has four numeric fields and are separated by dot.
• IPv4 can be configured either using DHCP or manually.
• IPv4 is further divided into five classes as Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D and Class E.
IPv6:
• IPv6 is the most recent version of IP.
• If provided with a 128 bit addressing scheme.
• IP address has eight fields that are separated by colon, and these
fields are alphanumeric.
• The IPv6 address is represented in hexadecimal.
2. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• ARP is used to convert the logical address ie. IP address into
physical address ie. MAC address.
• How Does ARP Work?
 • if any of the node in a network wants to know the physical
address of another node in the same network, the host then
sends an ARP query packet.
• This ARP query packet consists of IP address and MAC address of
source host and only the IP address of destination host.
• This ARP packet is then received to every node present in the
network. The node with its own IP address recognises it and sends
it MAC address to the requesting node.

3. RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

• RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

• RARP works opposite of ARP. Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol is used to convert MAC address ie. physical address into
IP address ie. logical address.

4.ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol)

• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

• ICMP is a part of IP protocol suite.
• Feedback in the network is reported to the designated host.
• ICMP protocol handles various kinds of errors such as time
exceeded, redirection, destination unreachable, parameter
problems etc.
 5. IGMP(Internet Group Message Protocol)

• IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.

• IGMP is a multicasting communication protocol.

Application Layer Protocols

1. TELNET
• Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork.
• It allows Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet
server. It is used for managing files on the Internet.
• The port number of the telnet is 23.
2. FTP
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
• FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers with reliable
and efficient data transfer.
• The Port number for FTP is 20 for data and 21 for control.

3. TFTP
• The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is the stock version of FTP
• It’s a technology for transferring files between network devices
and is a simplified version of FTP.
• The Port number for TFTP is 69.
4.SMTP
• It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 • It Using a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves
your email on and across networks.
• The Port number for SMTP is 25.
6. HTTP/HTTPS
• HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• HTTPS is the more secured version of HTTP, that’s why HTTPS
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure.
• This protocol is used to access data from the World Wide Web.
• The Hypertext is the well-organized documentation system that is
used to link pages in the text document.
• HTTP is based on the client-server model.
• It uses TCP for establishing connections.
• HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means the server doesn’t
maintain any information about the previous request from the
client.
• HTTP uses port number 80 for establishing the connection.

IP v4
• IPV4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4
• It is used for identifying devices on a network.
• It uses a set of four numbers, separated by periods (like
192.168.0.1), to give each device a unique address.
• IPv4 addresses consist of two parts:
o Network Part: The network part identifies the category of
the network that’s assigned.
 o Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on
your network. This part of the IPv4 address is assigned to
every host.
• classes of IP address
The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are
given below:
• Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E
Class A
• IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks
that contain a large number of hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.
• The host ID is 24 bits long.
• subnet mask for Class A is 255.x.x.x
• class A ranges from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.

•
Class B
• IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range
from medium-sized to large-sized networks.
• The network ID is 16 bits long.
• The host ID is 16 bits long.
• subnet mask for class B is 255.255.x.x.
• class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255.

Class C

• IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized

networks.
• The network ID is 24 bits long.
• The host ID is 8 bits long.
• subnet mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
• class C range from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.
 Class D
• IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting.
• The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses belonging
to class D is always set to 1110.
• The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts
recognize.
• Class D does not possess any subnet mask.
• IP addresses belonging to class D range from 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255.

Class E
• IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for
experimental and research purposes.
• IP addresses of class E range from 240.0.0.0 –
255.255.255.255.
• This class doesn’t have any subnet mask.
• The higher-order bits of the first octet of class E are always
set to 1111.
 Dotted Decimal Notation

Subnetting
Subnetting is the procedure to divide the network into sub-
networks or small networks, these smaller networks are known as
subnets.
Supernetting
Supernetting is the procedure to combine small networks into
larger spaces.
Difference between subnetting and supernetting

Subnetting Supernetting

Subnetting is the While supernetting is

procedure to divide the procedure of
the network into combining small
sub-networks. networks.

In subnetting, While in supernetting,

Network addresses’ Host addresses’ bits are
bits are increased. increased.

In subnetting, The
While In supernetting,
mask bits are
The mask bits are
moved towards the
moved towards the left.
right.

Subnetting is While supernetting is

implemented via implemented via
Variable-length Classless interdomain
subnet masking. routing.

In subnetting,
While It is used for
Address depletion is
simplifying the routing
reduced or
process.
removed.