Today, we will see some more applications of friction.

For your reference, this is module 5, lecture 12, of the Engineering Mechanics course. In the previous
lectures, we saw some applications like screw jacks and thrust bearings. Today, we will explore the
application of friction in journal bearings and also examine how rolling resistance and wheel friction
are induced in the motion of a wheel.
In this picture, you see an axle supporting pulleys that are driven or driving some machinery. This is
the common way these pulleys are supported. These are the axles, and the axles rotate about this axis,
which has to be supported by the end bearings. The motion is horizontal, so the radial forces, the
weight of the pulley, and other forces are transmitted radially to these bearings, which are supported
by the bearing block at these two ends.
We have already seen one kind of bearing, the thrust bearing, which provides axial support. These
bearings are known as journal bearings, which provide lateral support to the rotating shaft. To reduce
friction, lubrication is generally applied between the axle and the bearing block.
The frictional resistance that occurs between the axle and the bearing block depends on many factors,
primarily the clearances between the axle and journal block, the speed at which the shaft or axle is
rotating, and the viscosity of the lubricant being used. Partially lubricated bearings can be assumed to
exist in a dry condition, where the axle may have point contact or line contact along the bearing
during motion. With this assumption, we will proceed to analyze this problem.
This figure shows the pulley supported by this axle, which is in turn supported by the bearing block.
The circle represents the bearing surface where the axle is in contact with the bearing block. Let W be
the weight of the pulleys or wheels being supported by this axle, and a moment M is being applied to
keep the wheel in motion. The reaction from the bearing to the axle has been shown to shift to a
location that is not the point of contact when the wheel is stationary.
Let us consider this wheel and the axle supported by a bearing block. For clarity, let this be the weight
W applied to this bearing block through this axle. When the wheel is stationary, the point of contact is
here. If we exaggerate the situation, showing a clearance between the journal and the shaft, this is the
clearance we observe.
When the shaft is idle or not in motion, the point of contact is here, or along the journal, which forms
the line of contact between the axle and the journal. This is the weight carried by the axle. The support
reaction from the bearing block acts at this point, let it be R.
Let us give a small rotation to this axle. Due to the friction that exists, the axle climbs the journal
because no slippage occurs at this point. With respect to this point, the axle tends to move, and new
points of contact form. Slowly, the axle climbs in this direction. The point of contact actually shifts,
which continues until a maximum point is reached, corresponding to impending slippage. Here, the
normal reaction shifts in the direction of the downward movement, and friction acts in the opposite
direction.
Once the journal starts rotating at higher speeds, the point of contact slightly shifts downward
because the kinetic friction is lower than the maximum static friction. So, the point of contact shifts
from the maximum point to a new position, and it remains in equilibrium at this position. For constant
motion of this axle, the point of contact shifts from, say, the lowest point A to point B.
At this point, the frictional force is the kinetic frictional force between the axle and the journal, and the
normal reaction acts along the radial line. The resultant of these forces is R, which is vertical and equal
in magnitude to the weight W. The moment or couple of these two forces, W and R, must balance the
applied moment M. Otherwise, this couple, which is anticlockwise, will retard the motion of the wheel.
That is, the wheel will stop unless M is applied.
To keep the wheel in constant motion, a clockwise moment M must be applied. This is the frictional
moment that must be overcome in the journal bearings. For this equilibrium, we know the angle
between the resultant and the normal force is the angle of kinetic friction, φk.
Certain observations can be made: the reaction is vertical and equals the magnitude of the weight
carried by the axle. The line of the reaction passing through point B does not pass through the center
of the shaft, point O, which happens when the shaft is idle. When the wheel rotates, the reaction shifts
to a location because of the axle’s motion.
If the wheel rotates in the counterclockwise direction (i.e., the applied moment is counterclockwise),
the point of contact B will shift to the left of O. But in this case, it is located to the right of O. This shift
results in a moment, which is balanced by the applied moment.
This is why we say the axle climbs in the bearing. This picture shows the forces and moments acting.
The angle between R and the normal, as we have seen, is φk.
We can calculate the moment caused by the resultant R as R times r, where r is the radius of the axle,
times sin φk, which is the horizontal distance of the point of contact B. For small angles of φk, we
know sin φk ≈ tan φk because tan φk is sin φk divided by cos φk, and for small angles, cos φk is nearly
1.
This approximation leads to the equation M ≈ Rr tan φk. Since tan φk is the coefficient of kinetic
friction, μk, the equation becomes M ≈ Rrμk. Here, R is the reaction force, which equals W, r is the
radius of the axle, and μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the axle and the bearing block.
We can treat the bearing reaction R at point B as a force and a couple system. Let us see how to do
this. We have the wheel and the axle, with weight passing through O. The point of contact has shifted
to point B. This is the normal reaction, and we have the frictional force and resultant R. This is r, the
radius of the axle.
Now, we can replace the resultant force R with a force passing through point A, just below O, and
replace it with a force R and a moment acting at point B. This can be written as R at A and a moment
M, equal to Rr sin φk, which we just found is approximately Rrμk.
We can treat this reaction R at B as a reaction R at A and a moment. Graphical solutions are possible
where we place this reaction force R tangentially to the circle, called the circle of friction. This is
because we know that R is displaced by a distance of r sin φk. This vertical displacement is
approximately rμk.
We can draw the free body diagram with this reaction R passing tangentially to the circle of friction,
whose radius is rf = rμk.
Let us now take an example problem to solve the journal bearing problem. Here, a pulley is supported
on a shaft at O. The diameter of the pulley is 400 mm, and it can rotate about the fixed axis of the
shaft, which has a diameter of 200 mm. The axle or shaft has a diameter of 200 mm, and the radius of
the axle is 200 mm, while the diameter of the pulley is 400 mm.
The coefficient of static friction between the pulley and the shaft is given as 0.2. We are asked to
determine the smallest vertical force P required to start raising a 500 Newton load. This 500 Newton
load is attached to a belt passing over the pulley, and force P is being applied to raise it. We are
interested in finding the smallest vertical force required to lift the load. Secondly, we need to
determine the smallest vertical force P needed to hold the load, ensuring that the weight does not fall
when the force is released.
Here, we assume that the impending slippage does not happen between the belt and the pulley, but
rather the slippage occurs between the pulley and the shaft. So, the slippage is on this surface and not
on this surface.
For the first case, let us draw the free body diagram. When this P tends to lift this weight W, the
impending motion is clockwise, meaning this pulley tends to move in the clockwise direction over the
axle or the shaft. The point of contact, which is originally at A, now shifts to B and tends to slip at this
point B. This can be found by considering the analogy of the axle and the pulley; originally, the point
of contact is at A, and as the pulley tends to move in this direction, for exaggeration, let’s assume that
this is the diameter of the shaft. The point of contact slowly shifts in this direction. Once it reaches
some maximum value, it starts to slip, and the pulley starts to rotate with respect to the axle. Now we
can represent the resultant R, which is the resultant of the normal force and the frictional force. So, this
R is the resultant of the frictional force and the normal force acting at this point. Since the slippage is
in this direction, the force will be acting in the opposite direction.
If you want to solve this problem by a graphical method, we can place this reaction R at a distance
corresponding to the radius of static friction. The angle made by this R with respect to the normal is
phi. We find the radius of friction as r * sin(phi) because this is an impending slippage case, and we
take the coefficient of static friction. The radius of the circle of friction will be r * sin(phi); for a small
angle, this is approximately equal to r * tan(phi) or r * mus. For this particular case, we find this as 20
mm. The reaction R is shifted by 20 mm to the right from O. We have these distances as 200 mm
minus 20 mm, which is 180 mm, and the distance between this vertical force W and R is 200 mm plus
the radius of friction, which is 220 mm.
Now, we can sum the moments about B and equate them to zero for equilibrium. So we have the
momentum for this 500 Newton force as 220 mm, and the momentum for the force P that is used to
raise as 180 mm. We have 220 * 500 - 180 * P = 0, from which we find P as 611 Newtons.
For case B, we are interested in finding the force P that is required to just hold the weight. This means
that the impending slippage is such that the pulley starts to move in the counterclockwise direction.
The point of contact, which is originally at A, now shifts in the counterclockwise direction to the point
C, where the horizontal displacement of this reaction R is equal to the radius of the static friction circle,
which is again 20 mm. So, we see that the momentum for this weight W is 180 mm, and for this force
P, it is 220 mm.
Now, we sum the moments with respect to C in order to find this force P required to hold this weight.
So summing the moments, we have the momentum for the 500 Newton force as 180 mm. So we have
180 * 500 Newton - 220, the momentum for this force P, which is a clockwise moment, so negative,
equal to zero. From this, we find the value of P as 409 Newtons.
This problem illustrates how we can solve problems involving journal friction, first finding the radius of
the circle of friction, then displacing the reaction tangential to the circle of friction, and finally solving
the problem.
Now, we will move on to discuss wheel friction or the kinds of friction that occur when wheels move
on platforms. In this picture, you see a wheel supported on an axle at O. Let W be the weight of the
wheel acting through the axis of this axle O. When the wheel is idle, the normal reaction from the
ground N passes through this point A, and the wheel is in equilibrium. When this wheel starts moving
in the forward direction, we know that there exists friction between this axle and the wheel that resists
the motion. If the wheel tends to rotate in the clockwise direction, then we have a resisting moment
acting in the counterclockwise direction at the axle. So, this is marked here as M. This frictional force or
the frictional moment existing in the axle and wheel prevents this motion in the forward direction.
In order to sustain this motion or the forward motion, we have to apply a force on the axle. So that is
marked as P. In order to overcome this moment M such that, if r is the radius of the wheel, then we
find that if we apply a moment which is equal to P * r, then we can sustain this motion. From the free
body diagram, we see that if this force P acts at the axle, then we need a force F at this point A. Only
then, the system will be in equilibrium. You can see that W is balanced by N, the moment M is
balanced by the moment due to this force P, that is P * r, but when you sum the horizontal forces, if
this force F is not there, then this force P is unbalanced. In that case, rather than rolling this wheel, it
starts sliding, and this point of contact will start moving. In order for this wheel to be able to roll, we
need to have this force F. That is how this frictional force helps in the rolling motion. Even though we
see that there is a point contact, the presence of friction is necessary for the rolling action to take
place.
So, we say that the moment M due to the frictional resistance of the axle bearing requires the couple
produced by the equal and opposite P and F. Thus, the presence of F is necessitated. Without the
friction on the rim, which is at this point A, the wheel would slide.
Let us consider a free wheel that does not have an axle. Here, you see a free wheel that does not have
an axle, and it is pending to roll. Assume that the contact at A between the wheel and the ground has
no relative motion for the wheel to roll. For this rolling action, the point A will be idle, and the other
parts of the wheel will rotate with respect to this point of contact A. If the surfaces are hard, then the
point of contact or this contact is a point or line along the width of the wheel. So ideally, we see that
there is no friction. When a free wheel, that is, a wheel which is not supported by an axle, and the
ground on which it rolls is also hard, the point or line contact can be maintained. It should ideally roll
without stopping if a small rolling motion is given to the wheel.
But, we see that this generally does not happen for real systems. That means, we have real materials
constituting the wheel and the ground. When the wheel is rolled on the ground, after some time, it
comes to rest. We can see why this happens. This happens because of the presence of rolling
resistance.
Let us see how this rolling resistance comes into the picture. In the ideal contact, both these bodies are
deformable, so the point of contact is no longer a line, but rather, if this is the weight of the wheel
passing through its center, we have a region of contact or a surface of contact. Thus, the reaction is no
longer a point force, but rather a distributed force. The resultant of all these forces is equal to this R or
N. So the resultant of all these forces is equal to N, which is the weight of the wheel when this wheel is
idle or not in rolling motion. But when the wheel tends to roll, the pattern of these uniformly
distributed forces changes.
This can be explained by considering the same wheel. Now, let us say the wheel tends to move in the
clockwise direction. So what happens? The contact in this vicinity experiences compression because of
this wheel. We are assuming the ground and the wheel to be made of materials that are deformable
under the action of these forces. The material here compresses and thereby offers more reaction; the
material here is relieved because the wheel is moving away from this portion. So what happens is the
distribution here changes: the material gets relieved, and here it gets compressed because of this
motion. So, the reactions here are more than the reactions that are in this place.
So, the distribution becomes something like this. We see that if we take the resultant of all these
forces, now it will no longer be this vertical force N, but rather a force that acts at some distance away
from the original point under consideration below, say O. Now, this reaction force still passes through
O but having a displacement in the direction in which the wheel tends to roll. So, this point of contact
now would have shifted by a distance, b. That is what you see in this picture: the resultants of these
forces have shifted from the point vertically below the axle or the center of the wheel to this point b.
The horizontal displacement is denoted by b. Now, the moment due to this force, the vertical
component of this force r, is balanced by W. However, the horizontal component of this r is balanced
by the applied force P, which keeps the wheel in rolling motion. The moment of this force balances the
moment of the reaction.
We see that the resistance to rolling comes from the moment of this reaction force r, which must be
balanced by an applied moment. If this force does not exist, the wheel will come to rest due to the
resisting moment, the moment caused by this force r.
The reaction force is applied at point B or b, and P is required to balance the moment
of W about b or r with respect to the vertical axis. We see that the moment of this weight is W times b,
the horizontal displacement of this point, which must be equal to the moment due to this
force P times the momentum, which is at point A—so, OA.
For small deformations, we can say that this distance OA is approximately equal to the radius of the
wheel itself. This is approximately equal to P times r. If the surfaces of contact are deformable, then we
need this force P in order to maintain rolling conditions. The distance b, to which the reaction r has
displaced from the vertical, is known as the coefficient of rolling resistance. This has units the same as
length.
We know that the coefficient of friction has no units, but the coefficient of rolling resistance has the
unit of length.
Let us consider an example problem. Suppose a vehicle has a weight of 65 kN, and it is designed to
move on slippery tracks, like ice or steel tracks, where the coefficient of friction between the wheels
and the track is very low, say 0.005. The coefficient of rolling friction is known to be 0.8 mm. The
vehicle has four-wheel drive, which means all four wheels propel the vehicle forward. We are interested
in finding whether the vehicle will be able to move.
For the vehicle to move, the thrust developed by the wheels should be less than the maximum friction
available between the wheels and the track. This can be seen by considering the following picture of
the wheel. Let us assume this is the axle on which the vehicle is supported, and we have the track. The
wheel develops a moment or thrust to propel the vehicle forward. This force is experienced at the
point of contact, and the friction acts in the opposite direction to prevent the point from slipping.
The maximum frictional force that can exist at this point is limited by the friction between the wheel
and the track. The total frictional force is the sum of the frictional forces from the front and rear
wheels, given by μN1 for the rear wheels and μN2 for the front wheels.
From equilibrium equations, we can find the normal reactions, N1 and N2. The frictional forces at the
contact points can be calculated, and from these, we can find the total traction force. For the vehicle to
move, the traction force must overcome the rolling resistance.
Let us calculate the rolling resistance and compare it with the available traction force. The rolling
resistance can be calculated using the normal reactions N1 and N2 and the coefficient of rolling
resistance. If the rolling resistance is less than the available traction force, the vehicle will move.
Otherwise, the wheels will keep revolving without the vehicle moving forward.
Now, let us move to another example of a roller thrust bearing. In this case, we have a series of rollers
supporting a load P. We need to calculate the torque required to keep the shaft in rolling motion. The
coefficient of rolling resistance is given as 0.127 mm, and we know the dimensions of the balls and the
load to be supported. We calculate the torque by considering the reactions at the contact points of the
rollers and the displacement due to rolling resistance.
By summing the forces and moments, we can determine the required torque to maintain rotation. This
example illustrates how to solve for rolling resistance in mechanical systems.