Module 4 Traffic Safety & Environment
Syllabus: Traffic Safety and Environment: Road accidents, Causes, effect, prevention, and cost,
Street lighting, Traffic and environment hazards, Air and Noise Pollution, causes, abatement
measures, Promotion and integration of public transportation, Promotion of non-motorized
transport.
Accident studies:
Road accidents and the Traffic Engineer: As the number of vehicles increases on the
road, creates a major social problem i.e., loss of lives through road accidents. The
traffic engineer is concerned because many features of the highway affect the safety
of the vehicle and the other users. He is also concerned about the regulation and
management of traffic to ensure safer travel. The cost of traffic accidents helps the
traffic engineer in evaluating an improvement scheme aimed at reducing the
accidents. Road accidents cannot be totally prevented, but by suitable traffic
engineering and management measures the accident rate can be decreased
considerably.
Road and its effect on accidents:
Accidents are rarely caused because of one single factor. Usually interaction of
following set of factors causes the accidents.
⦁ The road and its condition
⦁ The vehicle
⦁ The driver
⦁ The road user other than the motorist : Pedestrians & Cyclists
⦁ Environmental factors: weather, rain, snow, ice, fog etc.
Road factor: This includes
a) Vertical alignment
b) Sight distance
c) Super elevation
d) Carriageway width
e) Width and condition of shoulders
f) Deficiency in road signs and road markings
g) Junction design
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h) Pavement surface characteristics
i) Formation delineators and guard rails
j) Narrow bridges and culverts
k) Median width
l) Street lighting m) skidding
The vehicle factor: This includes
Braking system
Lighting system
Vehicle body
Tyres
Vehicle inspection and maintenance
The Driver factors:
Driver judgement, skill and emotional make up
Age of drivers
Sex of drivers, Marital status
Training of drivers
Alcohol, drugs and the driver
Fatigue
Use of crash helmets
Use of safety belts
Objectives of accident studies:
1. To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential
location
2. To evaluate existing designs and to support proposed design
3. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the
problem
4. To make computations of financial loss
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5. To give economic justification for the improvements suggested by the traffic
engineer.
Definitions:
Road accident: An accident (collision, overturning or slipping) which occurs on a
road open to public traffic resulting in either injury or loss of life or damage to
property in which at least one moving vehicle was involved.
Fatal Accident: An accident in which one or more persons were killed.
Minor injury accident: Accidents in which persons received only minor injuries.
Pedestrian: Any person other than a driver or passenger
Driver: Any person who drives a vehicle
Passenger: Any person other than a driver, who is in the vehicle.
Nature of collision:
i) Head on collision, ii) Rear end collision iii) Brush/side swipe collision iv) Right
angled collision
v) Right turn collision
Various causes of accidents are listed below:
a)Drivers: Excessive speed and rash driving, carelessness, violation of rules and
regulations, failure to see or understand the traffic situation, sign or signal,
temporary effects due to fatigue, sleep or alcohol
b) Pedestrian: Violating regulations, carelessness in using the causeway meant for
vehicular traffic
c) Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles
d) Vehicle defects: failure of brakes, steering system or lighting system, tyre-burst or
any other defect in the vehicles.
e) Road condition: Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts and other
damaged conditions of the road surface.
f) Road design: Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance,
inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper lighting and
improper traffic control devices.
g) Weather: Unfavourable weather conditions like mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke or
heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and render driving unsafe.
h) Animals: Stray animals on the road.
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Accident records:
Accident records are maintained giving all particulars of the accidents, location and
other details. The records may be maintained by means of location files, spot maps,
collision diagrams and condition diagrams.
Location files: These are useful to keep a check on the location of accident and to
identify black spots. Location file should be maintained by each police station for the
respective jurisdiction.
Collision diagrams: It is a schematic representation of the accident occurring at a
particular location. The diagrams show the approximate path of vehicles and
pedestrians involved in the accidents. Standard symbols are used to identify the full
details and nature of the accidents. The pedestrian path is indicated by dotted lines
where as the path of the vehicle is indicated by solid lines and the direction of travel
is indicated by arrows. The date and time of accident, weather and roadway
condition, details of persons involved in the accident can be noted. Collision
diagrams are most useful to compare the accident pattern before and after the
remedial measures have been taken.
(Read note book for standard symbols and typical collision diagram)
Condition diagram:
A condition diagram is a plan drawn to scale (1:100 or 1:250) indicating the
important physical features at the accident location. The prime idea of the condition
diagram is to obtain enough help to interpret the cause for accident.
Standard symbols are used to show various details. It includes i) Geometric features
of the location, giving the street width, shoulder width, corner radii and kerb lines.
ii) Property lines iii) Foot ways and drive ways iv) Separate cycle tracks if any v) Sight
obstructions in the roadway vi) Traffic signs, signals and markings vii) Street lighting
viii) Bridges, culverts, over bridges and under passes ix) Ditches along the
roadway x) Parking regulations.
(Read note book for standard symbols and typical condition diagram)
Measures for the reduction in accident rates:
The measures taken to reduce accident are three ‘E’s. i)Engineering ii) Education &
iii) Enforcement.
Engineering measures:
a) Road design: The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances,
width of pavement, horizontal and vertical alignment, intersection design elements
are checked and corrected if necessary. The skid resistance of pavement surface is
checked and suitable maintenance steps taken to bring them up to the design
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standards. By-passes may be constructed wherever necessary to separate through
traffic from local traffic. Grade separated intersections or flyovers are provided to
minimise conflicts at junctions.
b) Road lighting: Proper road lighting can decrease the rate of accidents during
night. Lighting is particularly desirable at intersections, bridge sites, bus stops etc.
c) Before and after studies: The record of accidents and their patterns for different
locations are maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams. After making
the necessary improvements in the design and enforcing regulation, it is again
necessary to collect and maintain the record of accidents “before and after” the
introduction of preventive measures to study their efficiency.
Education measures:
School children who are particularly liable to accidents, can be easily imparted the
necessary training in the school about the rules of the road and related safety
aspects. Refresher courses conducted for drivers on the traffic safety and how to
use their vehicles in a safe and efficient manner.
Propaganda: These are powerful tools in a road safety. They are
i) Poster campaigns ii) Campaigns in a local press and media. iii)
Broadcasts in the radio
iv) Short films exhibited on the television v) Use of imaginative and
catching slogans
Enforcement measures:
The motor vehicle rules are revised from time to time to make them more
comprehensive. The enforcement of rules is in the hands of the police department
in cooperation with the traffic courts. The police force should be adequately
strengthened with latest tools & technology to deal with the cases. The driving
license is issued only after proper testing and renewed periodically. The traffic
offences such as over speeding, drunken driving, violation of traffic rules etc are
detected & punished according to the act. Provision of legal action, penalties,
imprisonment, licence cancellation etc should be exercised. Motor insurance, driving
licence, pollution check, vehicle fitness etc are made compulsory. Minimum age
limits and education qualification of drivers are fixed. Proper traffic control device
like signs, markings, channelizing islands are installed wherever necessary.
Commercial vehicles must have a conductor or attendant to help and give proper
direction to the driver.
Street lighting:
A large number of road accidents are caused in the night and one of the chief
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reasons is the unsatisfactory lighting. When the vehicles are driven with full head
lights on, the glare problem would cause road accidents.
Need for street lighting:
[Link] lighting is primarily intended to enable the road users to see accurately and
easily the carriage way and the immediate surroundings in darkness.
2. The street lighting lessens the driving strain and ensures driving comfort.
3. Since the speed of traffic generally improves with better lighting and hence traffic
capacity of road will be improved.
4. Indirect benefit includes reduction in crime, promotion of aesthetic appearance of
the surroundings and extension of business hours after sunset.
Definition of terms:
Luminous flux (F): This is the radiant power given by the light source
Lumen (lm): It is the flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 steradian by a source having a
uniform point source of 1 candela.
Luminous intensity (I): Luminous flux emitted/unit solid angle
Candela: Unit of luminous intensity
Illumination(E): Luminous flux incident per unit area upon a point on a surface. The
unit of illumination is lux.
Luminosity: Luminosity is the brightness sensation experienced by an oberverwhen
viewing a bright light or object.
Span : That part of the highway lying between successive lanterns in an installation.
Outreach: Distance measured horizontally between the centre of lantern mounted
on a bracket and the centre of column.
Factors to be considered in the design of road lighting:
a) Lamps b) Luminary distribution of light c) Spacing of lighting units
d) Height and overhang of mounting e) Lateral placement
f) Lighting layouts
Lamps:
Sodium or mercury vapour lamps are preferred at large intersections. The choice of
lamp, its type, size and colour depends on its distribution of light on the pavement
surface and spacing of the lamps.
Luminary distribution of light:
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The distribution from the lamp should cover the pavement between the kerbs,
footpaths, shoulders, for 3m to 5m beyond the pavement edge. Also illumination is
necessary for traffic signs and other objects on the road. BIS recommends an
average level of illumination of 30 lux on important roads.
Spacing of lighting units:
Large lamps with high mountings and wide spacing are preferred from economy
point of view.
Height and overhang of mountings:
It is desirable to have higher mounting heights and adequate overhang projections.
Usual mounting heights range from 6m to 10m. This will enable better distribution
of light on the pavement and less glare on eyes of road users.
Lateral placement:
IRC specifies horizontal clearance for lighting poles as 0.6m from the edge of raised
kerb and minimum of 1.5m from the edge of the carriageway for roads without
raised kerbs. If the street lighting poles are too close to the carriage way the free
movement of traffic is obstructed resulting in decrease in capacity of the roadway.
Lighting layouts: There are 3 types of layouts. i) Single side ii) Staggered on both
sides iii) Central
Single side lighting is suitable for narrow roads. For wider roads, the staggered
system or central lighting system may be adopted. Lights are installed at closer
spacing on curves and located on the outer side of curves.
Traffic and Environmental Hazards:
a) Pollution of the atmosphere by fumes & smell emitted by the motor vehicles makes
the urban streets extremely unpleasant.
Air Pollution: Sources & Reasons:
The major source of the pollutant is exhaust gas emitted by the internal combustion
engine, although evaporative losses from the fuel tank and the carburretor and losses
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from the crank case account for some proportion of the hydrocarbons. The follwoing
are the major components of exhausr gas.
Carbon dioxide, Water vapour, Unburnt petrol , Orgnic compounds produced from the
petrol
Carbon monoxide oxide of nitroge, Lead compounds, Carbon particles (smoke)
Effects
a) Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds are the sustances which
are of concern from the point of view of road user & his health.
b) Small doses of carbon monoxide are present in the air due to road traffic may not
be a medical danger but can cause effects.
⦁ The Concentration of nitrogen oxides due to road traffic being small, their presence
does not appear to be danger to health, but the effect of long term exposure might
cause anxiety.
⦁ Lead compoundes in small concetnrations are present in the city streets may not be
toxic, but increase in the concentration may ultimately effect the well being of the
residents.
e) Smoke contains minute particles of carbon & though by itself it is not a helath
hazard, it may not prove dangerous in combination with some other compounds.
Some of the measures to control air pollution from road traffic.
⦁ Reducing the pollutants at the source, which is the exhaust by improving the vehicle
design and maintenance.
⦁ Use of small cars instead of bigger ones
⦁ Patronage of public transport system, especially tubes and railways
⦁ Use of alternate fuels and methods of propulsion
⦁ Staggering work hours, to reduce peak hour traffic
⦁ Institution of parking restraint to promote public transport
⦁ Restraining traffic through road pricing
viii) Controlling idling engines, by insisting that engines should be stopped during
traffic delays
⦁ By constructing bypasses and ring roads to reduce traffic in the mid town
Some of the measures to control noise pollution from road traffic
⦁ Changes in design of vehicles
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⦁ Changes in tyres or road surfaces
⦁ Elimination of noisier vehicles
⦁ Modifications in traffic operation
⦁ Designing streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise.
Noise Pollution:
Noise is unwanted sound. The increasing urbanisation in cities and growth of
activities there in have contributed to the mounting volume of noise, intruding upon
the quiet life and privacy of the urban dweller.
Effect of Noise:
The detrimental effect of noise can be considered under the following three major
groups.
⦁ Subjective effect ii) Behavioural effect iii) Physiological effects
i) Subjective effects: Sujective effects can be described by terms such as annoyance.
disturbance, dissatisfaction, bother & noisiess. But these effects are difficult to be
measured precisely.
⦁ Behavioural effect: Behavioural effects cover interference with sleep, speech or any
general task. Disturbance in sleep caused by noise is common in high noise areas. If
the noise is high, it takes longer time to fall off to sleep and there are greater chances
of awakening. It can cause disturbance in studies and intellectual pursuits. In class
rooms considerablke distraction can result in the studens mind due to continuous high
level of traffic noise.
⦁ Physiological effects: Physiological effects are those that cause startic or fright
phenomena, and can result in harmful effects on various parts of the body. At
extremely high level and for long periods of exposure, it may produce deafness. But
this danger may not be imminent at current levels of noise in cities.
Generation of noise by road traffic:
a) Noise generated by various parts of the vehicle
b) Noise contributed by the interaction between the vehicle and the road surface
⦁ Noise dependent on the speed, flow and the traffic density
An important source of the noise generation is the vehicle itself. The
elements that contribute to the vehicle noise are
Engine during acceleration, Exhaust (silencer), Breaks, Horns, Chasis, Loads in the
vehicle
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Door slamming
Motor cycles & scooters are noisier than passenger cars. Diesel engine trucks produce
more noise. Older vehicle mechanical conditions deteriorate, generate more noise.
Rough surface, wet surface, concrete surface contribute more noise. Higher vehicle
speed cause higher noise levels.
Measurement of noise level: The unit of measurement of noise is the decile (dB)
Some of the measures to control noise pollution from road traffic
[Link] in design of vehicles
[Link] in tyres or road surfaces
[Link] of noisier vehicles
[Link] in traffic operation
[Link] streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise.
Changes in design of vehicles
Legislative measures in enforcing vehicle manufacturers to design the vehicle
for a maximum noise level can prove effective if they are enfoeced properly.
[Link] in tyres or road surfaces
Changes in tyre tread design and composition can bring about a reduction in
noise level. Smoother surfaces result in less noisier roads. But this
requirement is against the skid resistance requirement.
[Link] of noisier vehicles
As vehicles become old, their noise level increases. Legislative measures can
prevent such vehicles from being used on the road.
[Link] in traffic operation
Some of the measures that are possible under this head are
a) Rerouting of commercial vehicles and buses away from the predominetly
residential areas
b) Provoding bypasses and ring roads to syphon off the through traffic
entering the towns.
c) Prohibiting blowing horns by proper signing & enforcement measures.
[Link] streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise.
These measures are essentially town planning measures. Narrow streets creates noise
conditions, a situation commonly known as 'canyon' effect. When planing new streets,
it is desirable to plan for wider streets. A related requirement is the height of building
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and their setback from the streets.
Vibrations: A vehicle moving on a road surface induce vibrations in the
surroundiings.
Surface finish of road surfaces and its effects on generation of vibrations:
a) Irregularities in the road surface are the major cause for vibrations.
b) A smoothly finished surface does not generate vibrations, large enough to be
percieved by people or cause any damage to the structure nearby.
⦁ The effects of traffic induceed vibrations are cracking of plaster, rattling of doors,
windows and glass panes.
⦁ Vibrations can be a serious problem in bridge structures giving rise to over stressing
and fatigue.
Legislative measures in enforcing vehicle manufacturers to design for limited noise
level. Say for example, noise level for Passenger Cars = 82 dB, Goods vehicle = 91 dB
Smooth surfaces produce less noise but skid resistance is kept in mind.
Old vehicles being produce more noise, are prevented to be used on the road.
Rerouting buses and commercial vehicles from residential areas, providing bypasses
for through traffic entering the towns, provide synchronized traffic signals & reduce
stop and go traffic flow, No blow horn enforcement measures, planning wider
streets & building set backs. Planting trees and shrubs alongside the streets which
serve as noise screens also improves general beauty of the city.
Promotion and Integration of Public Transportation:
One of the current issues pertaining to urban traffic is the role of public transport.
It can not be denied that the private car is the most ideal transport vehicle devised by
man. Its advantages are obvious: quicker travel, freedom from adherence to fixed time
table, possibility of carrying packages & children comfortably.
At the same time, the great increase in the car ownership has created problems of
congestion, accidents, parking & pollution.
The possible ways of dealing with the problem is:
The mass transport trips are predominantly by buses. Bus transport has many
advantages to offer.
1. It can carry a lot more people for the street space it occupies. Streets can get
decongested and travel can be made quicker.
2. The dilemma of finding space for parking the cars in the urban core gets resolved.
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3 Oil consumption can be reduced.
4. Pollution can be minimised.
5. Bus transport is labour intensive and can provide jobs for the unemployed and this
is an important factor in the developing countries with high population.
6. The peak hour traffic requires the maintenance of a large fleet. It therefore been
found necessary to subsidise the public transport.
7. Subsidizing public transport and fostering its growth is perhaps more desirable than
facing the consequences of uncontrolled private car travel.
8. In India, the central government have been providing loan assistance to the local
authorities for augmenting and strengthening bus transport.
9. An efficient bus transport system can be built only after careful planning.
Selection of bus routes should be based on detailed travel surveys.
10. The bus stops and routes should be so planned that the walking distance of the
passengers from the place of residence or work to the bus stop should not be
abnormally high say 0.3 km to 0.5 km or involving not more than 5 to 10 minutes
walk.
11. The streets should be planned for bus traffic. The most important requirement is
provision of recessed bus bays to accommodate the parking bus away from the
carriage way. Bus stops should be located at convenient and safe places.
Promotion of Non-Motorized Transport:
A variety of intermediate public transport vehicles are found on the Indian streets.
These are
⦁ Motor Cycle Rickshaw:These are motor cycles of second world war vintage
converted in to 4 seater three wheelers. Speed is about 15kmph.
⦁ Three wheeler Auto Rickshaw: These are very popular in India and can be seen in
all towns & cities. Capacity is 2 seater besides the driver. Speed is 25 kmph.
⦁ Cycle rickshaw: These are pedal cycle vehicles with 3 wheels and are found in many
Indian towns & cities. Seating capacity is 2, besides the driver. Speed is about
10kmph.
⦁ Tonga: Horse drawn vehicle, seen at almost any Indian town & city. Besides the
driver, 2 to 4 persons can be accommodated. Speed is about 10 kmph.
⦁ Six seater Autorickshaw: This has been recently introduced in India. There are 2
rows of seats with 4 openings. Six persons can be seated excluding driver.
⦁ Matadar Van: A light Van diesel operated, with a seatng capacity of 8 excluding
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driver.
⦁ Matadar Van: A van diesel operated with a seating capacity of 15 excluding driver.
Promotion of Bicycle traffic:
Bicycles are important mode of personal transport, particularly for the poor sections of
the society in India. Because of their many advantages they must be favoured and
patronized. Some of the advantages are
⦁ They use only human energy and thus avoid the use of scarce oil based energy
resources.
⦁ They do not letout emissions
⦁ They are noiseless.
⦁ They require very small parking space.
⦁ They are cheap to own & operate
⦁ They offer door to door mobility
⦁ They can keep the rider in good health
⦁ They are safe when they are segregated from the fast traffic
Pedestrianisation:
Complete banning of the motor vehicle from certain areas and declaring the same as
pedestrian zones, increases the safety of pedestrians.
It gives them the freedom to move about and shop leisurely. It frees the area from the
noise, fumes and smell. The business increases. The motorists, pedestrians and
commercial interests are all agreed about the beneficial results of pedestrianisation in
selected location.
1. Pedestrian zones (also known as car-free zones) are areas of a city or town reserved
for pedestrians only and in which most or all automobile traffic may be prohibited.
Converting a street or an area for pedestrians only is called pedestrianization.
2. Pedestrianization is the process of making a street or part of a town into an area that
is only for people who are walking, not for vehicles.
3. Complete banning of the motor vehicle from certain areas and declaring the same as
pedestrian zones, increases the safety of pedestrians.
4. It gives them the freedom to move about and shop leisurely. It frees the area from
the noise, fumes and smell. The business increases. The motorists, pedestrians and
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commercial interests are all agreed about the beneficial results of pedestrianisation in
selected location.
⦁ Always walk on the footpath, they are meant for you. Where there is no footpath,
walk in the right side margin of the road so that you can see the traffic coming in the
opposite direction.
6. The term 'pedestrian' includes: people on foot, people with a disability, people in or
on wheeled recreational devices (WRDs), people using personal mobility devices
(PMDs)
7. Subways, Zebra Crossings, Foot over bridges should be used to cross the road.
Short cuts and easy options of crossing roads are dangerous and should not be resorted
to.
8. Promoting walking would reduce the need for oil and save fuel.
9. Studies have shown that pedestrianization also increases the use of public transport,
such as buses or rail.
10. In addition, it increases space on the streets for additional opportunities, such as
street furniture and landscaping.
11. It also reduces pollution and improves the quality of life of residents and
pedestrians, with less environmental noise, improved air quality and more spaces for
green areas and socializing
12. Footpath or footway, is a path along the side of a road. Usually constructed of
concrete, pavers, brick, stone, or asphalt, it is designed for pedestrians.
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