PHYSICS

FORCE
- A force is an influence exerted on an object through a push or pull due
to its interaction with another object. Forces occur when multiple
objects engage with each other. It is a vector quantity that quantifies
the interaction between two bodies. The standard unit of force is the
Newton (N).
CATEGORIES OF FORCE
1. CONTACT FORCES
Contact forces refer to forces that occur when two or more
bodies are in physical contact, resulting in interactions at the
surface or point of contact. Comon examples of contact forces
include friction, tension, normal force, and air resistance. In
contrast to non-contact forces like gravity or magnetism, contact
forces require direct physical interaction to influence the motion
or state of an object.
2. NON-CONTACT FORCES
Non-contact forces are forces that act on objects without any
physical contact between them. Noncontact forces include
gravitational force, magnetic force, and electrostatic force, which
occurs between electrically charged objects. These forces can act
through empty space, allowing them to exert their influence even
when the interacting bodies are not in direct contact.
EFFECTS OF FORCES
1. CHANGE OF SPEED
Force can change the speed of an object by either accelerating or
decelerating it, depending on the direction of the force applied.
2. CHANGE OF DIRECTION
Force can change the direction of an object's movement by altering its
velocity vector, which includes both speed and direction.
FORMULA FOR FORCE
The amount of force is represented by the vector product of mass (m)
and acceleration (a).
F = ma; where m = mass, a = acceleration
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kg m/s^2
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BALANCED FORCES
- All forces acting on an object are equal.
- There is no motion.
- No acceleration.
UNBALANCED FORCES
- One or more forces acting on an object are stronger than others.
- There is motion.
MOTION
- Defined as the change in position with respect to time.
- It refers to the movement of a body.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
- States that an object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion
will stay in motion at the same speed and in the same direction unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force or an external force.
- LAW OF INERTIA, the more mass an object has, the more inertia.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
- Pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are
unbalanced.
- States that the acceleration of an object is dependent on the net force
and the mass of the object.
- The acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the net force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
- The direction of the net force is in the same direction as the
acceleration. Thus, if the direction of the acceleration is known, then
the direction of the net force is also known.
- LAW OF ACCELERATION
Formula: a = Fnet/m or Fnet = a x m
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- According to Newton, when two bodies interact, they exert force on
each other, and these forces are known as action and reaction pairs.
- In every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the interacting
objects.
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- The magnitude of the forces is equal and the direction of the force on
the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second
object.
- Action-reaction, where the force exerted is the action and the force
experienced as a consequence is the reaction.
let A be the body exerting force on body B, then body B too exerts a
force on body A, which given as:

- If object A exerts a force on object B, object B also exerts an equal and

opposite force on object A. In other words, forces result from
interactions.

FRICTIONAL FORCES
FRICTION
- is a force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in
contact with the surface of another.
- The friction is lesser when the surface is slippery.
FRICTIONAL FORCES
- the force generated by two surfaces that contact and slide against
each other.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE FRICTIONAL FORCE:
- These forces are mainly affected by the surface texture and the
amount of force impelling them together.
- The angle and position of the object affect the amount of frictional
force.
- If an object is pushed against the surface, then the frictional force will
be increased and becomes more than the weight of the object.
TYPES OF FRICTIONAL FORCES
1. STATIC FRICTION
- A force that keeps an object at rest.
- Friction experienced when individuals try to move a stationary object
on a surface, without actually triggering any relative motion between
the body and the surface it is on.
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- The force of friction which precisely balances the applied force for the
duration of the stationary state of the body.

EXAMPLES:
a. Papers on a tabletop
b. A towel hanging on a rock
c. A bookmark in a book
d. A car parked on a hill

2. KINETIC FRICTION
- A force that acts between moving surfaces.
- A body moving on the surface experiences a force in the opposite
direction of its movement the magnitude of the force will depend on
the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two materials.
- Kinetic friction interferes motion of two or more objects. The force acts
in the opposite direction to the way an object wants to slide.
EXAMPLES:
a. Driving of a vehicle on a surface
b. Riding a bicycle
c. Walking on the road
d. A rock running off a slope
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC AND KINETIC FRICTION
 Static friction present between two or more objects that are not
moving with respect to each other. The magnitude of static friction is
greater due to the greater value of its coefficient.
 Kinetic friction is the friction present between two or more objects that
are in motion with respect to each other. The magnitude of the kinetic
friction is comparatively lesser due to the low value of its coefficient.

COEFFICIENT OF FORCE
 Coefficient of force refers to a ratio that describes the interaction
between two surfaces when they are in contact.
 It helps determine how much force is needed to move one object
relative to another.
 The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can apply upon
an object can be easily calculated with the use of the given formula:
f=μN where: f = Frictional Force μ= Coefficient of Friction N = Normal
Force
FACTORS AFFECTING COEFFICIENT OF FORCE
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1. SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Rougher surfaces have higher coefficients of friction.

2. MATERIALS
The types of materials in contact determine the coefficient.
3. TEMPERATURE
High temperatures can change surface properties, affecting the
coefficient.

WORK

 Work refers to the process of energy transfer that occurs when a force
is applied to an object, causing it to move.
 It requires both force and displacement.
FORMULA FOR WORK:
W = fd; where: W = Work (J) f = force (N), d = displacement (m)
 Work is the scalar product of the force vector and the displacement
vector.
- Scalar/Dot Product is a multiplication of two vector quantities,
resulting to a product which is a scalar quantity.
POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, AND ZERO WORK
POSITIVE WORK
- The force has a component in the direction of a displacement.

NEGATIVE WORK
- The force has a component in the opposite direction of a
displacement.

ZERO WORK
- The force is perpendicular to the direction of a displacement.
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WORK IS ZERO IN THREE CASES

1. When net force is zero. That is when the object moves with constant
velocity.
2. When displacement is zero. That is when the object, despite of a
constant force, remains stationary.
3. When force is perpendicular to the direction of the displacement.

UNDERSTANDING MECHANICAL ENERGY

MECHANICAL ENERGY
- is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy in an object that is used
to do a particular work.
- It describes the energy of an object because of its motion or position, or
both.
ENERGY
- the ability or the capacity to do work.
- measured by the capability of doing work: potential energy.
- conversion of this capability to motion: kinetic energy.
TWO TYPES OF ENERGY
1. POTENTIAL ENERGY
- Energy that is stored due to position or shape.
- Stored energy
TWO TYPES OF POTENTIAL ENERGY
a. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (GPE)
- is energy an object possesses because of its position in
gravitational field.
- Caused by the force of gravity pulling down on an object while
the object is being held up.
- Potential energy that depends upon an object’s height above a
reference point.
- PE = mgh
b. ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY (EPE)
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- Is energy stored as a result of applying a force to deform an

elastic object.
- The energy is stored until the force is removed and the object
springs back to its original shape, doing work in the process.
- Caused by changing the shape of an object.
- The deformation could involve compressing, stretching or
twisting the object.
2. KINETIC ENERGY
- Is the energy of an object have because of its motion.
- Must apply force.
- After work has been done, the object will be moving with a new
constant speed.
- KE = ½ mv^2
- Unit is Joules (J)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- States that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it
can only be transformed from one form to another.
- If you take all forms of energy into account, the total energy of
an isolated system always remains constant.
- All the forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy.
- Energy is conserved over time.
- 1st Law of Thermodynamics
- K1 + U1 = K2 + U2
- Total energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energy.
Etotal = mgh + ½ mv^2