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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Internal Combustion Engines
(Module III)
Prof. Niranjan Sahoo
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
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List of Topics
1. Internal Combustion Engine – Components, Nomenclature and Classifications
2. Basic Engine Cycle and Engine Kinematic Analysis
3. Engine Operating Characteristics
4. Thermodynamic Analysis of Air Standard Cycles
5. Valve Timing Diagram and Fuel – Air Cycle
6. Thermochemistry and Fuel Characteristics
7. Combustion Phenomena in Engines
8. Heat Transfer Analysis in Engines
9. Exergy Analysis and Engine Emission/Pollution
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Lecture 3
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air Standard Cycles
Otto Cycle (Ideal cycle for SI engines)
Diesel Cycle (Ideal cycle for CI engines)
Dual Cycle (Combination of Otto and Diesel cycle)
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Air Standard Cycles
The cyclic process experienced in the IC engines (both four-stroke and two-
stroke) is very complex.
• The intake charge (air for CI engine or premixed fuel-air mixture for SI
engine) is ingested and mixed with residual exhaust of previous cycle.
• After compression and combustion, the intake charge turns into exhaust
product largely with CO2, H2O, N2 and other residue.
• Thus, the real process involves charges with changing composition and
these open cycles are difficult to analyze.
A manageable option is to consider ideal “air standard cycles” with certain
assumptions. Based on this approach the following air standard cycles are
considered for thermodynamic analysis for SI and CI engines:
Otto cycle (SI engines)
Diesel cycle (CI engine)
Dual cycle
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Air Standard Cycles
Assumptions
• The gas mixture in the cylinder is taken as ‘air’ and its constant property
value is considered for entire cycle analysis. In real cycle, the charge
contains mostly air with around 7% of fuel vapour.
• The real open cycle is changed to closed cycle by assuming that the
combustion products exhausted to atmosphere are fed back with fresh
charge in the intake system.
• Since combustion is not possible with air alone, its equivalent
thermodynamic heat addition process is considered.
• The exhaust process carries lot of enthalpy out of the system, so that the
closing process can be considered as heat rejection process.
• The actual engine processes are approximated as near optimal ideal
thermodynamic reversible process.
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Air Standard Cycles
Assumptions
• Almost constant pressure intake & exhaust strokes.
• Compression and expansion strokes are treated as isentropic.
• Combustion process is idealized as constant-volume (for SI cycle) and
constant pressure (for CI cycle)
• Exhaust blow down is treated as constant volume process
• Air is treated as ideal gas and the following ideal gas relations can be used
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Otto Cycle
It is the air-standard model of most four-stroke SI engines and involves
following thermodynamic processes:
Intake stroke (Process 6-1)
• Starts with piston at TDC: constant pressure process. But, the inlet process
is slightly lower than atmospheric pressure)
• Temperature of air is increases as the air passes through hot intake manifold
(i.e. air at state ‘1’ is hotter than ‘6’ around 25-35°° higher)
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Otto Cycle
Compression stroke (Process 1-2)
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC: Isentropic process (good approximation for
real engine except at the beginning & end of stroke)
• At the beginning of compression stroke, the intake valve is not fully closed
and the end of compression stroke is affected by sparkplug firing
• Temperature and pressure increases substantially
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Otto Cycle
Heat addition (Process 2-3)
• This heat input process at constant volume replaces combustion process at
TDC. In real engines, combustion starts slightly bTDC, reaches maximum
speed at TDC and terminates little aTDC.
• The energy added to air rises to peak cycle pressure and temperature at ‘3’.
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Otto Cycle
Power/expansion stroke (Process 3-4)
• Very high pressure and enthalpy values within the system at TDC generate
high pressure on the piston face that forces back the piston & produces
power output for the engine.
• In real engines, the beginning of power stroke is affected by the last part of
combustion process while end of power stroke is affected by opening of
exhaust valve bBDC.
• Both temperature and pressure decrease as volume increases from TDC to
BDC.
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Otto Cycle
Heat rejection (Process 4-5)
• The replacement of exhaust blowdown open system process of a real cycle
is replaced with equivalent pressure reduction constant volume process of a
closed system. The enthalpy loss is catered as heat rejection.
• The pressure & temperature in the cylinder at the end of exhaust blow down
has been reduced to atmosphere.
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Otto Cycle
Exhaust stroke (Process 5-6)
• The piston travels from BDC to TDC where the pressure is slightly higher
than surroundings for real engines.
• At the end of exhaust stroke, the engine experiences two revolutions of
crankshaft (four-stroke engine). Piston is back to TDC to begin a new cycle
with closing of exhaust valve and opening of intake valve.
• Processes 5-6 & 6-1 cancel each other and do not contribute
thermodynamically.
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Otto Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle analysis
• At maximum throttle opening condition, only CR is required to calculate the
indicated thermal efficiency, commonly known as Otto cycle efficiency.
• Thermal efficiency increases with increase in CR.
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Diesel Cycle
It is the air-standard model of most four-stroke CI engines and involves
following thermodynamic processes:
• Intake stroke (Process 6-1): Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed
• Compression stroke (Process 1-2): All valves closed
• Heat addition (Process 2-3): All valves closed
• Power/expansion stroke (Process 3-4): All valves closed
• Heat rejection (Process 4-5): Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed
• Exhaust stroke (Process 5-6): Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed
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Diesel Cycle
Note:
Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber very late in the compression
stroke and there is an ignition delay between fuel injection and combustion.
Fuel “cutoff ratio” is defined as the change in volume occurring during
combustion.
Due to finite time requirement, combustion lasts into expansion stroke.
Pressure is kept with peak level at TDC so that combustion process (2-3) can
be approximated as “constant-pressure” process.
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Diesel Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle analysis
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Diesel Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle analysis
• Only CR & fuel cut-off ratio are required to calculate the indicated thermal
efficiency, commonly known as diesel cycle efficiency.
• Thermal efficiency increases with increase in CR and decreases with
increase in fuel cutoff ratio.
• For a given CR, the indicated thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is higher than
the diesel cycle.
• Constant-volume combustion at TDC is more efficient than constant-
pressure combustion.
• CI engines operate with higher CR (12 to 24) as compared to SI engine (CR 8
to 11) and thus have higher thermal efficiency.
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Dual Cycle
• Modern high speed CI engines accomplish dual mode of combustion process first by
constant-volume process followed by constant-pressure.
• Fuel injection starts earlier in the cycle (20°° bTDC) so that first fuel ignites late in
compression stroke as that of Otto cycle followed by diesel cycle.
• The peak pressure still remains high into expansion stroke due to finite time required
to inject the fuel.
• The last part of fuel injected at TDC so that combustion of this fuel keeps pressure
high into the expansion stroke.
• This concept of combustion process analysis is known as dual cycle or limited
pressure cycle. Many a times it is also called as modified Otto cycle with limited upper
pressure.
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Dual Cycle
It is the air-standard model of most four-stroke high-speed CI engines and involves
following thermodynamic processes:
• Intake stroke (Process 6-1): Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed
• Compression stroke (Process 1-2): All valves closed
• Heat addition (Process 2-x): All valves closed, Combustion Part I
• Heat addition (Process x-3): All valves closed, Combustion Part II
• Power/expansion stroke (Process 3-4): All valves closed
• Heat rejection (Process 4-5): Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed
• Exhaust stroke (Process 5-6): Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed
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Dual Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle analysis
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Dual Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle analysis
Fuel “cutoff ratio” is defined as the change in volume occurring during combustion.
“Pressure ratio” is defined as rise in pressure during combustion.
The air standard thermal efficiency for CI engine obtained through Diesel cycle is
slightly higher than Otto cycle.
The real engine cycle has less indicated thermal efficiency with respect to its air
standard efficiency of corresponding cycle. It is mainly because of changing
composition, heat losses, valve overlap and finite time required for cycle process.
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Comparison of Air Standard Cycles
• Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles are compared with same inlet conditions and
same compression ratio in p-v and T-s diagram.
• The area under T-s diagram is equal to heat transfer. For each cycle, the heat
rejection is same but heat input is different.
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Comparison of Air Standard Cycles
• The SI engines and CI engines are normally operated with different CRs. The realistic
way of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle comparison is to consider same inlet conditions
and same peak pressure.
• The area under T-s diagram is equal to heat transfer. For each cycle, the heat rejection
is same but heat input is different.
• Thus, thermodynamically, the most efficient engine would have combustion as close
as possible to constant volume but it would be CI engine operating at higher CRs.
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Numerical Problems
Q1. A four-cylinder, 2.5 litre SI engine with compression ratio of 8.6, operates on Otto
cycle. At the start of compression stroke, the fresh charge is at condition of 100 kPa and
60°°C. The engine uses isooctane as fuel with air-fuel ratio 15 and heating value of 44
MJ/kg with combustion efficiency of 97%. Carry out complete thermodynamic analysis of
the engine.
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Numerical Problems
Q1. A four-cylinder, 2.5 litre SI engine with compression ratio of 8.6, operates on Otto
cycle. At the start of compression stroke, the fresh charge is at condition of 100 kPa and
60°°C. The engine uses isooctane as fuel with air-fuel ratio 15 and heating value of 44
MJ/kg with combustion efficiency of 97%. Carry out complete thermodynamic analysis of
the engine.
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Numerical Problems
Q2. A four-cylinder, 4 litre truck engine operates on dual cycle with air-fuel ratio of 18.
The compression ratio is 16 and the cylinder bore diameter is 100 mm. At the start of
compression stroke, the fresh charge is at condition of 100 kPa and 60°°C. It can be
assumed that half of the heat input from combustion is added at constant volume and the
other half at constant pressure. Calculate, the pressure and temperature at each state of
the cycle, indicated thermal efficiency and exhaust temperature.
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Numerical Problems
Q2. A four-cylinder, 4 litre truck engine operates on dual cycle with air-fuel ratio of 18.
The compression ratio is 16 and the cylinder bore diameter is 100 mm. At the start of
compression stroke, the fresh charge is at condition of 100 kPa and 60°°C. It can be
assumed that half of the heat input from combustion is added at constant volume and the
other half at constant pressure. Calculate, the pressure and temperature at each state of
the cycle, indicated thermal efficiency and exhaust temperature.
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THANK YOU
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