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ww4(a)Explain the principle and operation of induction motor (6)

(b) Describe the construction of induction motor.. (6)
(c) Define the term synchronous speed and slip. (4)

mmmc 15.(a) Explain the construction and principle operation of the induction
motor.(10 marks)
(b) Define the terms of ‘synchronous’ speed and ‘slip’.
(6 marks)

mmea 3. (a)Explain the construction and operation principle of 3-phase

induction motors.(8)
(b)Define the term synchronous speed and slip. (8)

Construction

The induction motor has two main components, the stator and the rotor.

The Stator carries the 3-phase winding in slots cut into a laminated steel
magnetic core.

The ends of the stator windings are terminated in the stator terminal box
where they are connected to the incoming 3-phase supply cables.

The stator windings are wound for specific numbers of pole-pairs and can be
connected in either star or delta connection.

The rotor of the cage induction motor has a core which is built up of iron
laminations.

The conductors consisting of copper or aluminum bars is inserted, without

insulation.

The bars are short-circuited at each end by rings to which the bars are blazed
or welded.

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The air gap between the rotor and the stator is uniform and made as small
as it is mechanically possible.

Principle of operation.

All AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving (Rotating field)

magnetic field created in the stator by AC current, with an opposing magnetic
field induced on the rotor.

When the 3-phase a.c. supply voltages are connected to the three stator phase
windings, the resulting phase currents produce a multi-pole magnetic flux (Ф).
This flux is physically rotated around the stator core

The stator rotating magnetic flux cuts through the rotor conductors to induce
an alternating emf into them.

Since the rotor conductors are connected together at the ends, the induced
emf set up rotor currents.

The rotor currents also produce a magnetic flux which interacts with the stator
rotating flux which produces a torque (T) on the rotor conductor bars.

The direction of the rotor torque causes the rotor to rotate in the same
direction as the rotating magnetic field.

figure is not essential. Ww, mmmc key (no fig)

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Synchronous speed and Slip.

This flux is physically rotated around the stator core by the switched
sequence of the R-Y-B currents at a speed called synchronous speed (ns).

The value of synchronous speed depends on:

- how many magnetic pole-pairs (p) fixed by, the stator winding
arrangement and

- by the frequency (f) of the voltage supply connected to the stator winding

! ! $ %&
ns = revs/sec or Ns = rev/min
" "

Slip speed is the difference between the synchronous speed (nS.) of the
rotating magnetic flux and actual rotor speed. (nR )

Slip is usually expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed:

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mmea4. (a) Explain the construction and operation principle of 3-phase

synchronous motors.(8)
(b) Define the term synchronous speed and power factor correction.(8)

(a) Construction

The synchronous motor has two main components, the stator and the rotor.

The Stator carries the 3-phase winding in slots cut into a laminated steel
magnetic core.

The ends of the stator windings are terminated in the stator terminal box
where they are connected to the incoming 3-phase supply cables.

The stator windings are wound for specific numbers of pole-pairs and can be
connected in either star or delta connection.

Synchronous motors use a wound rotor. This type of rotor contains coils of
wire placed in the rotor slots.

The magnetic rotor is excited by an external DC source and, therefore,

requires slip rings and brushes to provide current to the rotor.

Principle of operation.

All AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving (Rotating field) magnetic

field created in the stator by Poly phase AC current, with an opposing magnetic
field induced on the rotor.

When the 3-phase a.c. supply voltages are connected to the three stator
phase windings, the resulting phase currents produce a multi-pole magnetic flux
(Ф).This flux is physically rotated around the stator core.

In the synchronous motor, the rotor locks into step with the rotating
magnetic field and rotates at synchronous speed.

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If the synchronous motor is loaded to the point where the rotor is pulled out
of step with the rotating magnetic field, no torque is developed, and the motor
will stop.

A synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor because torque is only

developed when running at synchronous speed.

Therefore, the motor needs some type of device to bring the rotor to
synchronous speed.

4.(b)
Synchronous speed

This flux is physically rotated around the stator core by the switched
sequence of the R-Y-B currents at a speed called synchronous speed (ns).

The value of synchronous speed depends on:

- how many magnetic pole-pairs (p) fixed by, the stator winding
arrangement and

- by the frequency (f) of the voltage supply connected to the stator winding

! ! $ %&
ns = revs/sec or Ns = rev/min
" "

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Power Factor correction.

For a constant load, the power factor of a synchronous motor can be

varied from a lagging value to a leading value by adjusting the DC field
excitation.

Keeping the same load, when the field excitation is increased on a

synchronous motor, the motor operates at a leading power factor.

If we reduce field excitation, the motor will operate at a lagging power

factor.

Synchronous motors are used to correct (improve) the power factor can
be obtained by DC over excitation current in large industrial complexes.

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ww5. Describe the star-delta method of starting a cage-type, 3 phase

induction motor with the aid of sketch and disadvantage of this method
of starting. (16)
mmmc18. (a) Describe the star-delta method of starting a 3 phase induction
motor with the aid of sketch. (10 marks)
(b) Explain the advantage disadvantage of this method of starting. (6 marks)
Answer

Fig. Star-delta Method

Star-delta method of starting a cage type 3 phase induction motor

- The three sets of stator windings have end connections to a starter box.

- Changeover contacts in the starter enable the six ends to be star-

connected for starting and then rotor speed comes up to be reconnected
in delta.

- Star starting reduces the voltage per phase to 57.7% of the line voltage.

- Starting current and torque are only a third of direct on-line starting.

- The low-current start is obtained at the expense of torque.

- Star-delta motors can only be used with light starting loads.

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- In the delta running condition, manual changeover may be made too

soon or too slowly and cause a current surge. So, automatic switching is
more suitable.

- In the delta running condition, phase voltage is equal to line voltage and
the motor perform as a single squirrel-cage type.

- Built-in interlocks or double-throw switches prevent star and delta

contacts from being closed together.

- The starter is designed that star contacts have to be made before

changing to the run position.

Advantage of star delta starter

(1) This can be reduced starting torque and current by smooth running.

(2) The line current in star is 1∕3 in delta

(3) OCR which is protected to single phasing.

(4) Star starting reduce the voltage per phase to 57.7% of the line voltage

(5) Can be used with light starting load

Disadvantage of star delta starter

(1) Star-delta starting reduces the surge but it is more complex.

(2) It is required three contactors and timers.

(3) The malfunction may occur if the control timer sequence is not complete
or the star contactor remains stuck.

(4) When a mechanical interlock prevent the delta contactor from closing,
this will cause overheat.

(5) Unless tripped by the overcurrent relay, finally burn out the motor.

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ww26 mmea.5 .(a)Explain the aid of simple sketch of soft starter

(8)
(b) Explain with the aid of simple sketches, the DOL starter control on 3 phase
induction
motor. (8)
mmmc12. (a) What is the principle purpose of motor starting methods and
write down the name of motor starting methods that you know. (4 marks)
(b) Explain soft starter method with the aid of simple sketch. (12 marks)

Answer
(a)

This method is gradually increasing AC supply voltage during start up

motor. This is an efficient electronic switching technique.

A basic method is to use back-to-back connected thyristors or triacs in

the supply lines which are "gated" to delay "turn-on,, within each a.c. half-
cycle.

This delayed switching applies a reduced average AC voltage to the

motor. The applied motor voltage is gradually ramped up by the starter
software program until the full voltage level is reached.

To achieve maximum efficiency, the electronic switching circuit can

now be bypassed for normal running.

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In this type of efficient "energy manager" application, the controller

monitors the motor power factor which is a measure of the motor loading.
On light load and full voltage, the power factor is low so the controller
reduces the motor voltage which reduces current while improving power
factor and efficiency.

This type of "soft start/ energy manager" is not a speed controller. A

soft starter is a voltage controller.

(b)

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12. (a)
Motor starting methods and its principle purpose

If a motor without starting method, the starting current is normally 5-8

times of full load current and winding temperature is 25-64 times normal.

It can cause the motor to burn out. So the principle purpose of all motor
starting methods is to reduce the starting current.

Motor Starting Method

• Direct on line
• Reduced voltage
• Auto transformer
• Star-Delta
• Partial windings
• Soft Starter

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ww.6. (a)State the reason for carrying out insulation tests on electrical
machinery. (3)
(b)How will you test the insulation resistance on electrical motor. (5)
(c)What is the minimum requirement for insulation result. (2)
(d)Describe the procedure for drying out an electric motor which has
been immersed in sea water. (6)

mmea.15. (a) What are the causes of induction motor failure.(8)

(b) Describe a procedure for drying out an electrical motor which has been
immersed in sea water.(8)

mmmc19.(a) State the reason for carrying out insulation tests on electrical
machinery.(4 marks)
(b) How will you test the insulation resistance on electrical motor and what
is the minimum requirement for insulation result. (4 marks)
(c) Describe the procedure for drying out an electric motor which has been
immersed in sea water. (8 marks)

Answer
(a). Reason for carrying out IR Test

A measurement of the insulation resistance (IR) state the health of

electrical equipment.

The resistance should be measured:

- between insulated conductors and earth, and

- between conductors.

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(b) IR Test on motor

The followings procedures should be done for IR test on a motor.

• An insulation tester is a high reading resistance meter using a high

test voltage.

• A test voltage of 500 V d.c. is suitable for testing ships' equipment

rated at 440 V (AC).

• Test voltages of 1000 V and 5000 V are used for high voltage (HV)
systems on board ship.

• Before applying the test, the motor to be tested must be

disconnected from the power supply and locked-off according to
standard safety procedures.

• The operation of the IR tester should be proved. Short the two

probes together switch to "MΩ" and press the test button or rocker
switch. The pointer should be indicate approximately "0 Ω.

• Select the appropriate voltage range and confirm that a reliable

earth connection.

• Measure and log the phase-to-phase insulation resistance values.

Three readings should be measured as U-V, V-W, W-U.

• Measure and log the phase-to-earth insulation resistance values.

Three readings should be measured as U-E, V-E, W-E

• Note: Insulation resistance decreases with increase of

temperature.

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(c). Minimum requirement for insulation result

Equipment must be maintained in a clean condition to prevent tracking

and to maintain a high value of insulation resistance (usually at least 1 M𝛺.).

(d) Procedure for drying out an electric motor which has been immersed in sea
water.

The main problem is to restore the insulation resistance of the stator

winding to a high value_ This is achieved in three stages:
• Cleaning
• Drying
• Re-varnishing

Motor must be dismantled and checked all parts.

Salt contamination can be removed by washing with clean, fresh water. Any
grease or oil on the windings has to be removed using a degreasant liquid such
as Arrnaclean.

Dry the stator windings with low power electric heaters or lamps with plenty of
ventilation to allow the dampness to escape.

Alternatively, the windings can be heated by current injection from a welding

set or from a special injection transformer.

Be sure to keep the injected current level well below the motor's full load. rating.

With the windings clean and dry, and if the IR test remains high over a. few
hours, apply a couple of coats of good quality air-drying insulating varnish.

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ww2. (a) What are the possible causes of the motor failure (4)
(b) State the routine maintenance for a.c. motor. (6)
(c) Explain the meaning of " single phasing ". (2)
(d) State the possible causes of " single phasing ". (4)
Answer.
(a). Possible causes of the motor failure

It has been established through field experience that the majority of the
failures occur because of the following:
- Insulation failures
- Rotor-bar failures
- Mechanical problems.

(b) Routine maintenance for a.c. motor

1. Periodic inspection of motor. Accurate shaft alignment. For directly

coupled motors, shaft alignment between load and motor shaft should
be proper. In case of belt-type system, check for belt condition, belt
tension.

2. Check motor heating. If motor heats up quickly, check and clean air
filters. Therefore, the airflow will be adequate.

3. Keep motor clean and free from dirt and oil.

4. Check for dampness around the motor or inside the motor. This can
reduce insulation strength of motor winding. As far as possible, keep
motor dry internally as well as externally. Also, run motor for few hours
if not in use for along time so that moisture dries.

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[Link] bearing condition on a regular basis. Bearing should be lubricated

with prescribed lubricant. At the same time, keep in mind that
lubrication should be always done in proper quantity. Excess as well as
lesser quantity can do harm.

[Link] for any abnormal noise or excess vibrations from motor or

coupling. Do vibration analysis if necessary.
(c) Meaning of " single phasing "

The loss of current through one phase in a 3-phase supply is described as

single phasing.

(d) Possible causes of " single phasing "

L1 L2 L3
Open-circuit in
L2

a) blown fuse
b) faulty contact
c) broken wire or loose connection
C B

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ww.1 Drawn a detail a Ward-Leonard system installation used onboard a

ship(12)
State where and why they are used onboard. (4)

Mmea 7.(a) Explain with the aid of simple sketches, Ward Leonardcontroller in
DC motor speed control.(8)

Answer

Ward-Leonard system comprises of ,

1. Driving a.c. motor.
2. DC generator.
3. DC motor
4. Transformer and rectifier circuit for DC generator and motor field
windings.
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5. DC generator field control potentiometer.

For AC powered ship, current for windings is transformed to low

voltage and rectified from the source of main power.

In this method, a DC generator is driven by AC squirrel-cage induction

motor for AC powered ship. Output of DC generator is applied as power supply
through the brushes to armature of working motor. Speed and direction of
working motor varies with the magnitude and direction of applied viltage.

Output voltage of DC generator is increased or decreased by

potentiometer as magnetic field strength is altered by changing the field
current to the field windings of the generator. As output voltage of generator
varies, speed of the working motor also varies.

Change of current flow direction by also potentiometer, through the

field poles of the generator will cause the change in direction of the generated
current, supplied to the working motor and thereby also the running direction
of the motor.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This system used for fine control of DC electric motor speed from zero to
full in either direction. Able to give the motor a robust torque characteristic.

The system was used for the motors of electric steering gears of ships with
DC electrical power, and it is used today on ships with AC electrical power for
deck machinery such as the windlass, mooring winch etc,.

Working motor which powers the steering gear, windlass, deck crane and
winches or other equipment is a DC machine, because speed control of these
is easy.
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[Link] a.c. generators are usually provide on board ship. Explain in

detail one
type of generator to:- (a) the construction; (b) the performance; and (c) the
maintenance required. (16)

(a) generator construction

Main part of the generator construction consists of stator and rotor. But
unlike other machines, in most of the generators, field exciter are rotating and
the armature coil is stationary.
Stator: Unlike in DC machine, stator of generator is not meant to serve
path for magnetic flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding.
The stator core is made up of lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron,
to minimize the eddy current losses.
Rotor: There are two types of rotor is used in an AC generator: (i) Salient
Pole type and (ii) Cylindrical Pole type
Salient Pole Type: It is used in low and medium speed generators. This
type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles that is called salient
poles and bolted on the magnetic wheel.
These poles are also laminated to minimized the eddy current losses. This
type of rotor is large in diameters and short in axial length.
Cylindrical Pole Type: It is used in high speed generator, especially in
turbo alternators.
This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots
along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
DC excitation current is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings
and bushes arrangement.

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(b) generator performance

The working principle of AC generator is similar to the basic working

principle of DC generator.
In Synchronous generator, a rotor magnetic field is produced either by
designing the rotor as a permanent or by applying a dc current to the rotor
winding to create the electromagnetic.
The rotor of generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a
magnetic field within the machine, rotating in same direction of rotor rotation.
This rotation magnetic field induces a three-phase set of voltages within
the stator windings of the generator. Three stator windings is 120o apart.
Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, the electrical
frequency of the produced voltage is locked in or synchronized with the rate of
rotation of the magnetic fields in the machine.
Hence, It is related to the rotation speed of the generator rotor.
*+
𝑓=
,-&
where; f = frequency, Hz
N= mechanical speed of magnetic field , rpm (equals speed of rotor for
synchronous generator)
P = number of pole

The synchronous generator is an electrical machine which converts

mechanical energy into alternating electric energy.

(c) generator maintenance

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Generator prime mover is shut down and locked off before any
maintenance. The generator circuit breaker is locked off, auto start circuits are
disabled and electric heaters are switched off.
All wiring to the generator should be inspected for damage insulation and
tightness of terminal connections.
Check oil and water contamination of cable insulation within terminal
boxes.
Checked the cooling air intake and exhaust openings are not blocked and
are free of dirt and dust.
Inspect and clean the generator rotor and stator windings by removing
dust with a dry lint free cloth.
Low pressure dry compressed air may be used to clean the windings. An
industrial type vacuum cleaner is very effective for removing dirt from the
windings.
Rotor slip rings must be checked for uniform wear and that the carbon
brushes have free movement in their boxes.
Measure the insulation of stator and rotor windings to earth and between
stator phases. Generators with very low IR values less than 0.5 MΏ should be
given a thorough cleaning then dried out.
After maintenance, no load running checks should precede synchronizing
and loading. On load, particularly check for excess temperature rise and load
sharing stability when running in parallel.
Finally, if a generator is to be left idle or a long time, make sure that its
windings are suitably heated to prevent internal condensation forming on its
insulation.
As with all electrical equipment – dirt, overheating and dampness are the
enemy.
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mmea8. (a) Explain the construction and operation principle of synchronous

generator (Alternator). (8)
(b) Explain, with the aid of simple sketches, the basic function of three
phase static compound excitation. (8)

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8. (b) A static excitation method

The transient voltage response of a generator can be improved by

eliminating the rotary exciter in-favour of a static excitation method.

In this arrangement, the generator field draws its d.c. current via a static
excitation transformer and rectifier unit fed directly from the generator voltage
and current output.

The static excitation equipment may be located within the generator

casing or inside the main switchboard.

This type of generator has two shaft slip rings and brush gear to connect
the static excitation equipment to the rotor field winding.

On no load, the generator excitation is provided by the PRI. 1 winding of

the excitation transformer.

On load, the generator current injects an additional excitation current via

PRI. 2 of the transformer to maintain a constant output voltage. Response times
as low as 1.5 second to correct a 15% voltage dip.

This arrangement is known as compounding as it is controlled by voltage

(shunt effect) and current (series effect) feedback.
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9. (a) What is the purpose of fitting Automatic Voltage Regulator on an auxiliary

engine? (8)
(b) Describe how an automatic voltage regulator monitors output voltage
and controls the excitation system for an A.C. generator. (8)

9.(a) Purpose of fitting Automatic Voltage Regulator on an auxiliary engine

• Purpose - to maintain the output voltage of a generator at a desired value

• Sudden load current surges cause change its output voltage.

• This is due to an internal voltage drop in the generator windings and the
effect is called voltage dip.

• Similarly, load shedding will produce an overvoltage.

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• Varying voltage caused by fluctuating load demand.

• AVR equipment is necessary to rapidly correct voltage changes.

• AVR will control generator's voltage to ±2.5% of its set value.

9. (b) Principle of operation of AVR

Fig. AVR Block Diagram

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1. Consist of electrical and electronic component such as, transformer,

rectifiers, zener diodes, transistors and thyristors.

2. Mounted 1 or more cards fitted within MSB or local to the generator.

3. This produces a low voltage d.c. signal that is proportional to the a.c.
generator voltage.

4. This actual d.c. signal is compared with reference circuit of zener diodes
and resistors.

5. The output error signal from the comparator is amplified and used to
control the firing angle of thyristors through a triggering circuit.

6. A thyristor is a fast acting electronic switch controlled by a voltage signal

at its gate terminal.

7. This device rectifies and regulates the generator field current.

ww7.(a) What is the purpose of fitting Automatic Voltage Regulation on an

auxiliary engine. (6)
(b) Describe how an automatic voltage regulator monitors output
voltage and controls the excitation system for [Link] (10)
mmea.9
Answer
(a)Reason for AVR

Starting of large induction motors (always with a low pf of 0.3 - 0.4

lagging) causes sudden load current surges (6 - 8 times normal). Large voltage
drop in generator winding reduce terminal voltage at the load. The effect is
voltage dip Similarly stopping of large motors will produce an over-voltage on
bus bars.
An AVR is to deal with the voltage dip by following the sudden connection
of extra load and to restore the voltage quickly without voltage hunting.

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To Switchboard
Rectifier
Transformer

Voltage
Comparator

Smoothing Error Signal

Capacitor

Excitation
Control using

SCR Trigger Control

SCR SCR

Alternator
From Alternator
Exciter Field Winding

Principle of operation of AVR

1) At the voltage sensing unit, generator output is transformed, rectified

and smoothed to give a proportional dc signal

2) This dc signal is compared with a set value produced by an electronic

reference circuit of zener diodes and resistors.

3) The output error signal can be amplified and used to control the firing
angle of thyristors through a triggering circuit

4) The ac exciter field coils are supplied with a regulated direct current
from the SCR output.

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5) The output from the ac exciter rotor feeds into a rectifier bridge (in the
case of brushless alternator) to produce dc current for the alternator
field winding to control the voltage output.

ww14. (a) What are the likely consequences of attempting to close the
incoming breaker when the generators are not in synchronism ? (3)
(b) How could you monitor the correct instant for synchronizing with and
without the aid of a synchroscope (13)
mmmc. 23. (a) Explain the sequence of operation for putting a generator on to
bus bar to which another generator is already connected and for making the
incoming generator take a share of the load. (10 marks)
(b) How could you monitor the correct instant for synchronising without
the aid of a synchroscope or synchronizing lamps? (6 marks)

Answer
(a)
At the instant of closing the breaker, the voltage phase difference causes
a large circulating current between the machines which produces a large

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magnetic force to pull the generator voltages into synchronism. This means
rapid acceleration of one rotor and deceleration of the other.
The large forces may physically damage the generators and their prime-
movers and the large circulating current may trip each generator breaker.
Result?
Blackout, danger and embarrassment!
(b) Correct instant for synchronizing with the aid of synchroscope.
To achieve smooth manual synchronising, the incomer must be up to
speed to obtain approximately the same frequency on the bus-bar frequency
meter e.g. 60 Hz. The incoming generator voltage is set by its AVR or manually
trimmed to be equal to the bus-bar voltage.
Fine tuning of the speed can now be monitored on the synchroscope or
synchronising lamps. The incomer is adjusted so that the synchroscope indicator
rotates slowly clockwise at about 4 seconds per indicator revolution.
The circuit-breaker should be closed as the indicator approaches the 12
o'clock (in-phase) position. Breaker closing between 5-to and 5-past the -12
o'clock synchroscope position is satisfactory as long as the pointer rotation is
fairly [Link] incoming generator ammeter pointer will show very little kick
when correctly synchronised.
To back up the synchroscope, a set of lamps may be used.

Method of the correct synchronised position

• Lamps dark method (2 lamps)
• Lamps bright method (2 larnps)
• Sequence method (3 lamps)

Correct instant for synchronizing without the aid of synchroscope

In each case the lamps are connected between the incoming generator
and the bus-bars.
The sequence method, is preferred as it displays a rotation of lamp
brightness which indicates whether the incoming machine is running fast
(clockwise) or slow (anti-clockwise).
As with the synchroscope, the lamp sequence must appear to rotate
slowly clockwise.

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Correct synchronisation occurs when the top. or key lamp is dark and the
two bottom lamps are equally bright.

mmmc16. Write short notes for the following:

(a) Synchroscope and its connection to main circuit (6 marks)
(b) Ammeter or voltmeter construction to the main circuit. (5 marks)
(c) Earth detecting lamp and its connections to the main circuit. (5 marks)

16. (a)
Synchroscope and its connection to main circuit
The synchroscope has two windings, one of which is connected to the
busbars or running machine, and the other to the incoming machine. If there
are several machines, the synchroscope winding intended to incoming machine
is connected to each machine via a selector switch.

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16. (b)
Ammeter or voltmeter construction to the main circuit

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An ammeter is used to measure the current and it is connected in series

with the circuit.
A voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across the circuit and is
connected is paralle with it.

16. (c)
Earth detecting lamp and its connections to the main circuit

• The sketch shown is the Earth detecting lamp.

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• In a 3-phase a.c, there have no earth faults then the lamps glow with equal
half brilliance.

• If an earth fault occurs on one line, the lamp connected to that line goes dim
or extinguished.

• The other lamps will glow brighter than before.

• Earth indication lamps have been the most common method used for many
years.

• installation which is easy to understand.

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ww28.(a) State with reasons, the most common locations of earth faults aboard
ship (8)
(b) Explain how earth faults are detected on a three phase insulated
[Link]. (8)
mmea.10
(a) Common location earth fault onboard.

• Lamp fitting on open deck, exposed to weather,

• Working in humid condition, such as washing machine, galley equipment,

• Loose strands, all strand must be used in machine wiring. Unconnected 1 or 2

strands can touch grounded conductor. Care to be taken when connection
point in solenoid valve, limit switch, pressure switch … etc:,

• Bare conductor can be touch with metal case of components due to small
space for conductor entry and wire connection.

• Insulation tape may not be wrapped properly.

• Aging destroys its insulation properties.

• Dripping water over electrical machines.

• Insulation affected by condensate due to machine standing idle for long time.

(b) Earth indication lamps

• In a 3-phase a.c, there have no earth faults then the lamps glow with equal
half brilliance.

• If an earth fault occurs on one line, the lamp connected to that line goes dim
or extinguished.

• The other lamps will glow brighter than before.

• Earth indication lamps have been the most common method used for many
years.

• installation which is easy to understand.

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• Disadvantage is not very sensitive and will fail to indicate a high impedance
earth fault.

• One of the instrument-type monitor connects a small d. c. voltage and

resulting d.c. current is a measure of the insulation resistance of the system.

• The injection-type instrument limits the max: earth fault monitoring current
to only 1 mA.
(compared with about 60 mA for earth lamps)

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[Link] why low voltage provided in an a.c. system. Briefly describe how
this protected is effected. (16)

Answer
Undervoltage Protection ( Low voltage )

An undervoltage (U/V release mechanism is fitted to all generator

breakers and some main feeder circuit-breakers.

Its main function is to trip the breaker when an extreme voltage dip
(around 50%) occurs,

This is achieved by lifting the mechanical latch to allow the trip spring to
function which opens the breaker contacts.

The U/V release on a generator circuit-breaker also prevents closing

when the generator voltage is very low or absent.

An undervoltage relay may be magnetic or electronic, also provides back-

up protection to short-circuit protection.

During generator paralleling procedures, undervoltage relay prevent to

close the wrong circuit-breaker of a stopped and dead generator.

If this circuit-breaker was closed, the dead generator would be the

equivalent of a short-circuit fault on the bus-bars and cause a blackout.

Undervoltage protection is also required for motor starters. The starter

contactor normally provides this protection as it drops out when the supply
voltage is lost or is very reduced.

Normally, the starter circuit will not allow the motor to re-start when the
voltage supply is restored except when special automatic re-starting facilities
are provided. Undervoltage protection can be electromagnetic or electronic.

Generator U/V relays allow a time-delay to prevent misleading tripping

during temporary voltage dips (typically 15%) caused by large motor starting
currents.

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mmea11. (a) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, an over current trip.(8)
(b) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, an under voltage trip (Low voltage
protection). (8)

11.(a)
Protection of motors is required mainly to prevent overheating which can
cause deterioration of winding insulation and burn-out.
Overheating as a result of overload, stalling, single-phasing or prolonged
starting period can be detected by a rise in line current and temperature
increase in the windings.
Motors need to be protected against light overload. The overload
protection will operate at 10% to 20% above the rated full load current.
The thermal overload relay has three bi-metallic elements, one for each
phase of the three phase lines. The bi-metallic strip consists of two metals
sandwiched together. One end of the bi-metal is fixed while the other end
which is free to bends when heated. The motor line current passes through the
heater.
When the motor load current is normal, the bi-metal element bends
slightly. Excess current passing through the bi-metals causes them to bend
much more. The three bi-metal elements are linked together through a plastic
slide which moves to the right.

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In the motor control circuit, this n.c. trip contact is in series with the main
contactor coil of the motor starter.
With the opening of the trip contact, the coil gets de-energised, the main
contactors on the supply lines open, and the motor stops.
In this way, the motor is prevented from being overheated. If there is not
overload protection, the excess heat would have over a period of time, damage
the insulation so much that the motor would have burnt out.
Auxiliary Circuit Current

Normally closed
contact
Bi-metallic strip

Motor Line Current

Heater

Off Load Position Tripped Position

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Battery and Charging

ww3. (a) Describe the changes which takes place within a lead-acid battery
during discharge and when charging is taking place. (6)
(b) Explain ( i ) Why the rate of charge will effect gassing. (2)
(ii) The risk associated with gassing and safeguards in battery
compartments. (3)
(iii) The reason for distilled water topped up. (2)
(iv) The remedy for spillage of electrolyte on the skin. (3)
mmmc new same, 6/2016 a only same

Answer
(a)

Discharge action
During discharge, the hydrogen ions (H+) remove oxygen from the lead
peroxide (Pb02) of the positive plates and combine with it to form water (H20).

Loss of oxygen from the lead peroxide reduces it to grey lead (Pb).At the
negative side of the cell, sulphate ions (SO4,- ) combine with the pure lead of the
negative plates to form a layer of white lead sulphate (PbSO4).

discharge

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PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Charging
The sulphate goes back into solution as sulphate ions (SO4— ), leaving the
plates as pure lead.
Water in the electrolyte breaks down returning hydrogen ions (H+) to the
solution, and allows the oxygen to recombine with the lead of the positive plate
and form lead peroxide (Pb02).

charge
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 ← 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

(b)
(i) Rate of charge will effect gassing
Gassing is first noticed when cell voltage reaches 2.30-2.35 volts per cell
and increases as the charge progresses.
As long as battery voltage is greater than 2.30 volts per cell, gassing will
occur and cannot be prevented entirely.
To reduce the amount of gassing, charging voltages should be provided
according to charging rate of storage battery on name plate.
The rate should never be so high that violent gassing occurs.

(ii) Risk associated with gassing and safeguards in battery compartments

Towards the end of charging and during overcharge, the current flowing
into the cell.
It causes a breakdown or electrolysis of water in the electrolyte, shown
by bubbles at the surface.
Both hydrogen and oxygen are evolved and released through cell vent
caps into the battery compartment.
There is an explosion risk if hydrogen is allowed to accumulate (flammable
range is 4% to 74% of hydrogen in air).
Thus regulations require good ventilation to remove gas and precautions
against naked lights or sparks in enclosed battery compartments.

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(iii) Topping up.

For all rechargeable batteries, it is essential to replace lost water (caused
during gassing and by normal evaporation) with the addition of distilled water
to the correct level above the plates.
Exposure of the cell plates to air will rapidly reduce the life of the battery.

(iv) Spillage of electrolyte on the skin.

An alkaline cell has an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. A lead-acid cell

uses sulphuric acid. Both are diluted with distilled water.

When splashed the electrolyte on the skin, first aid treatment must be
carried out as immediately.

In both cases rapidly wash eyes and skin with plenty of fresh water.

The electrolyte of alkaline cells causes

§ skin burns which should be treated with boracic powder and
§ the eyes washed out with a solution of boracic powder (one
teaspoonful to a pint of water)

Sulphuric acid splashes can be washed with a saline solution (two

teaspoonfuls of household salt to one pint of water).

For both types of battery first aid equipment should be in the battery
compartment.

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ww11. Explain the emergency battery charging system. Show a typical

wiring diagram for two batteries working on a charge-discharge cycle(16)
mmea12. (a) Explain the emergency battery trickle charge and full charge
system. (8)
(b) Show a typical wiring diagram for two batteries working on a charge
and discharge cycle. (8)
mmmc new same with ww

(a)Emergency Battery Charging Systems

Battery charging equipment is a transformer/rectifier arrangement to
supply the required [Link] to the cells. The magnitude of charging voltage
depends on the battery type (lead-acid or alkaline) and the mode of charging
may be charge/discharge cycle, and boost charge, trickle or float charge.

Trickle or Float Charging

Due to leakage action and other open-circuit losses. the battery
deteriorates even when idle or on open-circuit. Hence, to keep the battery in
'fresh', it should be kept on a trickle charge. The rate of trickle charge is small
and is just sufficient to balance the open-circuit losses.

Full or Quick Charging

Through the trickle charge, the charging current is adjusted so that it only
compensates for losses, which are not for external load, set only to make up
leakage. When batteries have been discharged on load, the trickle current is
insufficient to recharge them. At this time, charging mode should be switching over
to the quick charge or full charge.

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Wiring Diagram for Two Batteries ( Charge – Discharge ) System

In various installations, batteries are kept stand by for discharged (floating

on the line) and also connected that they are being charged when load demands
or usual power supply fails.
Emergency power or temporary emergency power can be provided by
automatic connection of a battery at the loss of main power.

A simple arrangement is shown in Figure for lead acid batteries.

Ø Under normal circumstances the batteries are on standby with load

switches (L ) open and charging switches (C) closed.

Ø The electromagnetic coil holds the switches in position against the

pressure of the spring,

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Ø Loss of main power has the effect of de energizing the coil and the switches
are changeover by spring pressure moving the operating rod.
Ø The batteries are disconnected from the mains as switch (C) open and
connected to the emergency load by closing of (L).

Ø When batteries have been discharged on load, the trickle current, set
only to make up leakage, is insufficient to recharge them.

Ø Switching over to the quick charge regime restores full charge. Afterwards
batteries are put back on trickle charge.

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[Link] short notes for the followings with the aid of simplified circuit
diagram.
(a) Battery charging from d.c. main. (3)
(b) Battery charging from a.c. main (3)
(c) Function test of relays (5)
(d) Function test of contactors. (5)
mmc new same
Answer
(a) Battery Charging from [Link]

The circuit for charging from d.c. mains includes a resistance connected
in series, to reduce the current fiow from the higher mains voltage.
Feedback from the battery on charge is prevented, at mains failure, by
the relay (which is de-energised) and spring, arranged to automatically
disconnect the battery.
The contacts are spring operated; gravity opening is not acceptable for
marine installations

(b) Charging from [Link]

Mains a.c. voltage is reduced by transformer to a suitable value and then

rectified to give a direct current for charging.

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The supply current may be taken from the 230 volt section and changed
to say 30 volts for charging 24 volt battery.
(c) Function test of relays.
Ø The relay coil can be tested by checking its resistance. The coil should be
disconnected from the circuit to ensure that you are only checking the
coil.
Ø This can be done by disconnecting the wires from the coil. Relay coils
should have a measureable resistance: not open and not shorted.
Ø A meter reading of infinite 𝛺 (OL on most digital meters) indicates that
that the coil is open.
Ø A reading of 0 𝛺 indicates that the coil is shorted. The coil resistance will
vary depending upon the design of the relay and its operating voltage.
Ø The contacts should ohm as either open or shorted because they are a
switch.
Ø With the coil de-energized, the normally open contacts should read
infinite Ω (OL) and the normally closed contacts should read 0 𝛺. .
Ø When the coil is energized, the readings reverse: the normally open
contacts should read 0 𝛺 and the normally closed contacts should read
infinite 𝛺 (OL).They should never have a measurable resistance.

(d) Function test of contactors

Ø After servicing the contacts, verify their operation with an ohmmeter.

Ensure the circuit is de- energized. .

Ø Disconnect at least one of the leads to the contact surfaces. This is

necessary to ensure that other parallel circuits are not read by the
ohmmeter.

Ø Connect one lead of the ohmmeter to one side of the contacts. Connect
the other ohmmeter lead to the other contact.

Ø Physically open and close the contacts and observe the ohmmeter read-
ings.

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Ø The ohmmeter should read zero resistance when the contacts are closed
and an infinite resistance when the contacts are open.
Transformer
mmea1.(a) Explain the construction and operation principle of single phase
transformer. (8) (b) Explain the transformer losses.(8)
ww29.(a) Explain the construction and operation principle of single phase
transformer (8)
(b) Explain the transformer losses. (8)
mmmc new

(a)Construction and operation Principle

Ø A single phase transformer consists of two coils, wound on high silicon

content laminated steel core.

Ø This core having low reluctance and high permeability.

Ø Primary and secondary coils placed side by side..

Ø Two coils are insulated from each other and steel core.

Ø Other necessary parts are some suitable container for core and
windings.

Ø A.C supplied coil is called the primary and the other coil is called the
secondary

Ø There are two main types of windings: (i) concentric cylindrical and
(ii)sandwich.

Ø On Low voltage: (i) Windings are placed nearest to the core. (ii)Each
layer is separated from the other by small.

Ø In large transformers, each winding is placed on a separate former.

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Ø In the sandwich type of winding, the two windings are placed in the
alternate layers.
Ø When AC current flows in the primary coils, a changing magnetic flux is
generated around the primary coil.

Ø The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil through

the iron core

Ø The changing magnetic flux is cut by secondary coil, hence induces e.m.f
in the secondary coil.

(b) Transformer losses

(1) The iron losses; ( hysteresis and eddy current losses )
(2) The copper losses;
There are no friction and windage losses because it is static machines.

(1) Iron losses

Ø Iron losses depend on the supply voltage.
Ø Hysteresis loss: During demagnetization and magnetization due to
hysteresis effect, some energy losses in the cores called the hysteresis
loss.
Ø High silicon content laminated steel core produce a low hysteresis loss.
Ø Eddy current loss: The leakage magnetic flux generates the e.m.f in the
core produce current is called eddy current loss
Ø When the iron core is subjected to alternating flux hysteresis loss takes
place.
Ø Eddy current loss is minimized by steel laminations being insulation from
each other by a light coat of varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface.

(2) Copper losses

Ø Copper losses depend on the current.
Ø Copper losses in transformer is variable loss.
Ø The losses are due to I2 R losses and due to resistance of primary and
secondary windings.

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Ø The magnitude of the copper losses depends on the current flowing

through these coil

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mmmc10ww.9. With respect to electrical survey. How will you prepare for UMS
survey? (16 marks)

Preparation for UMS survey

If the ship is classified for Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) operation,
the electrical survey will be included all the alarms, fire detection, controls and
fail safe features.

All alarms associated with the main engine, auxiliary machines, lubrication
and cooling are to be tested for correct operation.

Testing of the electrical circuits from the various sensors to be done. To prove
that the overall sensors (pressure-stat, flow switch, level switch, temperature
switch, etc.) are functioning correctly should be proved.

Essential drives for lubrication, cooling and fuel supply are duplicated and
one pump can be selected on a duty/standby mode. Automatically startup of
the standby unit to be checked.

The duplicate bilge level alarms together with automatic bilge pumping must
be proved.

Action of automatic shutdown features for main engines and auxiliary

engines will be tested and auto-starting up of standby unit will also be tested.

The under voltage relay can be carried out by pulling the fuses in the
detection unit.

Automatic start-up of the emergency generator must be demonstrated. The

emergency generator should then run up to speed and supply voltage to the
emergency switchboard.

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UMS requirements demand that a standby main generator starts auto-

matically on loss of the duty generator.
The standby generator is to start and close onto the dead bus-bars within
45seconds.

And then, automatic sequential re-starting of essential auxiliaries for

lubrication, cooling, fuel and steering must be functioning correctly and tested.

The main and standby electric power supplies to the overall alarm monitoring
system must be inspected and tested.

The standby power arrangement usually includes battery back-up. It will be

necessary to inspect the general condition of the battery and its trickle-charger.

Tests are made on the UMS alarm system to verify alarm displayed on the
main console in the engine control room are relayed to the smaller group alarm
panel on the bridge.

The duty engineer call system is operating in the accommodation areas, i.e.
in the cabin of the selected duty engineer and in the duty mess and lounges.

If the engineer has not reached the control room and accepted the alarm
with in this time (2-3 minutes), a dead man alarm should be sounded generally
in the alleyway adjacent to the engineers' accommodation.

A complete inspection and test of the fire detection and alarm system must
be functioning correctly on the bridge, in the main control room and in the
accommodation. Hand operated fire alarm switches of the break glass type must
also be examined and tested to be in good working condition.

Main engine controls must function correctly and will be tested from the
bridge position, local position (engine control room) and at the emergency
position alongside the engine.

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Electrical equipment and connections for engine control will be examined for
wear and tear, insulation level, cleanliness, loose connections and overheating.

ww21.(a) How will you prepare alternators and main switch board for
survey.(10)
(b)Describe the method of testing the safety trips and relays. (6)
mmmc new

(a)Preparation for alternators and main switch board survey.

Alternators survey

Main and emergency generators are clean. All wiring to the generator
should be inspected for damage insulation and tightness of terminal
connections.

Check oil and water contamination of cable insulation within terminal

boxes. Checked the cooling air intake and exhaust openings are not blocked and
are free of dirt and dust.

Inspect and clean the generator rotor and stator windings by removing
dust with a dry lint free cloth. Low pressure dry compressed air may be used to
clean the windings. An industrial type vacuum cleaner is very effective for
removing dirt from the windings.

Rotor slip rings must be checked for uniform wear and that the carbon
brushes have free movement in their boxes. Air gap to be checked to ensure
that pedestal bearings are in good conditioned.

Measure the insulation of stator and rotor windings to earth and between
stator phases. Generators with very low IR values less than 0.5 MΏ should be
given a thorough cleaning then dried out.

No load running checks should precede synchronizing and loading. On

load, particularly check for excess temperature rise and load sharing stability
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when running in parallel. Proper operation of governor and AVR controls with
correct voltage, current frequency values should be confirmed.

Switchboards Survey

Survey requirement for any switchboard, section board are cleaned. Main
bus-bar and auxiliary connections should be checked for tightness.

Major internal cleaning up to be carried out during dead period.

Overheating signs at a connection junction are probably due to a loose joint. All
internal wiring within the switchboard panels must be securely fixed.

Testing with an infra-red thermal camera is now a very useful technique

for locating hot-spots. Bus-bar supports will be examined for surface tracking
and damage to the insulation material.

Cable entries at the bottom of the switchboard should be sealed with a

non-flammable material.

The main switchboard earth bar must be securely bonded to both the
frame of the board and to the ship's hull.

Hinged panel doors should be bonded with an earth strap to the main
switchboard frame

All safety devices, voltmeter, ammeter, synchronizing arrangements,

ACB, AVR and earth lamps should be checked and tested.

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Method of testing the safety trips and relays

Main Switchboard Safety Trips Testing Methods

[Link] Voltage Trip Pressing relay test button or taking out fuse
from voltage sensing line or low voltage
injection to relay

[Link] Voltage Trip Pressing relay test button or increasing

voltage by voltage trimmer high voltage
injection to relay

[Link] Frequency Trip Pressing relay test button or decreasing

frequency by governor control switch

[Link] Frequency Trip Pressing relay test button or increasing

frequency by governor control switch

[Link]/Over Current Trip Increasing the load to maximum or current

injection test to relay

6. Preferential Trip Increasing the load to maximum and

checking the preferential trips time setting

[Link] Insulation Alarm Pressing alarm test button

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mmmc7. How will you prepare for main circuit breakers, motors and starters
survey? (16 marks)
mmea14. How would you prepare main circuit breaker survey for visual
examination, generator change-over operation and reverse power trip test?
(16)

Preparation for Main Circuit Breakers Survey

Ø A visual examination of circuit breakers in main, emergency and section

boards will usually precede operational tests.

Ø The surveyor will particularly check the condition of main, arcing and
auxiliary contacts for signs of wear, misalignment and overheating.

Ø Arc chutes must be clean, free of arc debris and correctly aligned.

Ø All internal wiring should be in good condition and its end connections
must be tight.

Ø All mechanical linkages will be checked for any signs of wear or stress.

Ø Tests on a circuit breaker will include close and trip operations while its
isolated position.

Ø Emergency hand charging (if fitted) of the closing spring will be tested.

Ø Correct operation of the mechanical indicators to show whether the breaker

is open, closed or isolated is required.

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Preparation for Motors and Starter Survey

Motor
A visual examination to be done on all motor frames and terminal boxes
for any damaged or missing parts.

Periodic inspection of motor. Accurate shaft alignment. For directly

coupled motors, shaft alignment between load and motor shaft should be
proper. In case of belt-type system, check for belt condition, belt tension.

Check motor heating. If motor heats up quickly, Ventilation and motor

cooling fan also to be checked. Keep motor clean and free from dirt and oil.

Check for dampness around the motor or inside the motor. This can
reduce insulation strength of motor winding.

As far as possible, keep motor dry internally as well as externally. Also,

run motor for few hours if not in use for along time so that moisture dries.

Check bearing condition on a regular basis. Bearing should be lubricated

with prescribed lubricant. At the same time, keep in mind that lubrication should
be always done in proper quantity. Excess as well as lesser quantity can do harm.

Check for any abnormal noise or excess vibrations from motor or

coupling. Do vibration analysis if necessary.

Starter
The general condition of starter equipment will also be examined as
survey preparation.

Check the condition of starter for signs of wear, misalignment and

overheating. Arc chutes must be clean, free of arc debris and correctly aligned.

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All internal wiring should be in good condition and its end connections
must be tight.

Functional checks to be done the normal operation of the starter from its
local, remote and emergency control positions.

Signal and running lamps must be correct showing the motor/starter

condition, e.g. running, off, tripped, etc.,

Overcurrent trip settings should be compared with the motor full-load current
(FLC) rating. Other trips on motors also be checked.

Generator Change over Operation

Changeover of main and standby generator units requires a brief parallel
running period to achieve a smooth transition without blackout.
To achieve smooth manual synchronising, the incomer must be up to
speed to obtain approximately the same frequency on the bus-bar frequency
meter e.g. 60 Hz. The incoming generator voltage is set by its AVR or manually
trimmed to be equal to the bus-bar voltage.
Fine tuning of the speed can now be monitored on the synchroscope or
synchronising lamps. The incomer is adjusted so that the synchroscope indicator
rotates slowly clockwise at about 4 seconds per indicator revolution.
The circuit-breaker should be closed as the indicator approaches the 12
o'clock (in-phase) position. Breaker closing between 5-to and 5-past the -12
o'clock synchroscope position is satisfactory as long as the pointer rotation is
fairly [Link] incoming generator ammeter pointer will show very little kick
when correctly synchronised. To back up the synchroscope, a set of lamps may
be used.
Method of the correct synchronised position
• Lamps dark method (2 lamps)
• Lamps bright method (2 larnps)
• Sequence method (3 lamps)
When an incoming generator has been successfully synchronised, the
synchronising equipment should be switched off.
Manual kW load transferring is achieved by raising the governor setting
of the incoming machine while lowering the setting on the running machine.
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The total bus-bar load can now be totally transferred to the new machine,
and then open the circuit breaker of outgoing machine.
Reverse power trip test.

Ø Reverse power occurs when two (or more) generators are running in
parallel.

Ø When there is a loss of prime-mover power, the driven generator acts as a

motor and impose a heavy load on the remaining sets in parallel.

Ø To obviate overload trip in the other generators, its ACB must be

released.

Ø If the prime mover is a turbine, the reverse power setting of 2-3% is

usual.

Ø If the prime mover is diesel engine, the reverse power setting of 5-15% is
usual.

Ø A time delay range of about 0.5-3 seconds is usual.

Ø The relay power trip test is easily checked during a generator changeover.

Ø The outgoing generator is gradually controlled down so that the reverse

power relay to trip its generator circuit-breaker.

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ww13. How will you prepare for emergency power and associated equipment
and cables survey.(16)

Answer

Emergency Power and Associated Equipment:

The emergency generator must be started, manually or automatically,

while the initiation sequence and operation of starting equipment is observed.

Electrical supplies taken from the emergency switchboard should be

checked as receiving their rated voltage, current and frequency when powered
from the emergency generator.

Emergency lighting, fire pump and other emergency electrical equipment

must be functioning correctly.

Electrical interlocking arrangements between main and emergency

switchboard must be checked. Auto-start initiation relays will be examined and
tested.

The ship's emergency battery installation and its charging rectifier will be
examined. The battery environment must be dry and well ventilated.

The battery tops must be clean with terminal posts and connections free
from corrosion. Grease all connections with petroleum jelly.

Battery electrolyte should be proper level and correct value of specific

gravity (SG) as checked on a hydrometer.

Safety notices and personnel safety clothes (gloves, apron and goggles)
should be available adjacent to the batteries.

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The ventilation arrangements for the battery locker will be checked.

Battery charging equipment checks for dirt, overheating, loose connections and
correct functioning of indicators, instruments and alarms.
Cables

Ø IR (megger)test use for cable survey on a main cable run.

Ø The survey of cables and their installation is largely based on a close visual
examination.

Ø Inspection would search for any external damage of a cable's outer sheath
and wire.

Ø The cable must be adequately supported along horizontal and vertical

runs by suitable cable clips.

Ø Where cable-runs along an open deck have expansion loops, these must
be examined for abrasion and wear.

Ø Where cables pass though fire check bulkheads, they must be correctly
glanded or pass through stopper boxes which prevent the passage of fire
between compartments.

Ø A copper strap or flexible earthing wire is used to bond the steel frame of
all electrical motors and other equipment to the ship's hull.

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mmea13. (a)How would you prepare for emergency power and associated
equipment. (8)
(b)Describe essential and non-essential load. (8)

(b) Essential and non-essential load

Ø The main electrical load is divided into essential and non-essential

services.

Ø Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and for
the safe navigation and propulsion of the ship.

Ø They include certain supplies to navigational aids, communications,

machinery spaces, control stations and steering gear.

Ø The essential services may be supplied directly from the main

switchboard.

Ø Emergency supplies are necessary for loads which are required to handle
a potentially dangerous situation.

Ø If a generator overload develops, the preference trip relay sets an alarm

and acts to trip selected non-essential loads.

Ø This reduces the generator load so that it may continue to supply essential
circuits.

List of essential services supplied by emergency source

(A) Emergency Lights:
Alleyways, stairs, exits.
Boat station ( deck and overside )
Control stations ( bridge, radio room, engine room )
Machinery spaces.

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Emergency machinery spaces.

Navigational lights, not under command lights
(B) Communication and Alarms:
Internal communication systems – radio, telephones.
Fire detection and alarm installation, manual fire alarm, fire door release
gear.
Ship's whistle and daylight signaling lamp.

(C) Navigational Aids.

Radar, gyrocompass, radio direction finders, rudder angle indicator, etc.

(D) Emergency fire pump.

(E) Emergency bilge pump.

(F) Steering gear.

N.B.A and B above are supplied by battery.

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[Link] describe the factors which contribute to the deterioration on

marine electrical machinery and how these factors are taking into
account in the design of the equipment or in its operation (16)

Factors of deterioration on the marine electrical machinery are

Climatic conditions.

vibration.

Ø Continuous motion of ship, Temperature and Conditions of usage are all

contributory factors.

Ø Shore-based industries are not suitable for installation in a marine

environment.

Ø In marine environment, maximum reliability is important for marine

electrical equipment, which are vital for propulsion and safety of both
the ship and personnel.

Effect of Inclination.

Ø Effect of inclination is one of Factors of deterioration on the marine

electrical machinery.

Ø Marine electrical machinery is designed and arranged to ensure that

their functions will be proper operation.

Ø For example, emergency generator and its prime mover and any
emergency accumulator battery will proper function at full rated power
when the ship is upright and when inclined at any angle of list up to 22.5o
or when inclined up to 10o in the fore or aft direction.

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Ø All marine electrical machineries have suitable limitation for safe

operation from concerned marine classification society.

Installation and Basic Maintenance

Ø In order to reduce end-play and avoid hammering during rolling,

machines should be installed with their axis of rotation either vertical or
in the fore and aft direction.

Ø If they unavoidably have to be placed athwartship, care must be taken to

reduce the end-play and to provide suitable thrust bearings to prevent
any hammering action when the ship rolls. Special attention must also be
paid to lubrication of ring-lubricated sleeve bearings.

Ø The usual cause of overheating in electrical joints is loose connections,

and to counter this.

Ø Vibration problems should be occurred due to losing of all screws and

lock nuts. So, they must also be examined periodically and tightened if
necessary. If these screws and nuts become slack, it may result in erratic
operation or complete failure.

Effects of Temperature

Ø Extreme of temperature will affect the performance and the effective life
of any electrical apparatus.

Ø Resistance of the coil increases with temperature and so with less

current, the field strength is reduced. Contactors and relays may fail to
operate correctly if overheated.

Ø The total temperature will effect the life of the insulation and the
performance of equipment. Adequate ventilation is important for
electrical apparatus.

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Ø ' Hot spot temperature' is important factor. Hot spot is a temperature

gradient from there to the surface.

mmmc9. With respect to electrical survey, how will you prepare for parts of
steering gear survey and navigation light indicator survey?(16 marks)

9.
Preparation for Parts of Steering Gear survey

Ø One of the steering gear motors is power supplied from the emergency
switchboard by the SOLAS requirements. So both main and emergency
power supply, if including any changeover facilities, must be checked.

Ø Rudder control from the bridge position may be hydraulic telemotor or

electric controller or both. So the steering wheel and electric controller
to be checked and tested.

Ø The steering gear and its control must be functionally tested to ensure
within limitation for its response.

Ø Steering gear status indication lamps and alarms must be operating

correctly in the steering flat, main control room and on the bridge.

Ø Steering motor over current alarms must be checked by initiating the

current relay.

Ø The steering gear motor does not have over current trip protection; the only
main circuit protection being from the back-up fuses which are essential
for short-circuit protection. So these fuses should be checked.

Ø Check the condition of motor starters and electrical cables. Tested the
insulation test to motor and wiring system.

Ø Check the correction of bridge rudder indicator and mechanical

indicator on the rudder stock in the steering flat.

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Ø Check the alarms test of safety arrangement such as; 1. Oil level alarm, 2.
Control Voltage Failure alarm, 3. Overload alarm and 4. Phase Failure
alarm.

Preparation for Navigation Light Indicators

The following to be prepared for Navigation Light Indicators Survey;

Ø The navigation light indicator operates correctly and gives the

appropriate alarms.

Ø A broken wire or lamp can be simulated by pulling the appropriate fuse.

Ø The power supply for the navigation lights must be duplicated (usually
the alternative supply is obtained from the emergency switchboard).

Ø The changeover facilities must be checked

Ø The actual light fittings for navigation are part of the Safety Equipment
Survey.

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ww23.(a) What is programmable logic controller? (8)

(b) What do you understand the logic gate ? Explain with one example how
does logic gate work. (8)

Answer
. (a) What is programmable logic controller?

Ø A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of

microprocessor-based controller. PLC is working with the following
Major Components.

Ø The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is containing the

microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and carries out the
control actions, according to the program stored in its memory,
communicating the decisions as action signals to the outputs.

Ø The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to the
low dc voltage (5 V) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the
input and output interface modules.

Ø The programming device is programmed into the memory of the

processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred
to the memory unit of the PLC.

Ø The memory unit is stored with programs that is to be used for the
control actions by the microprocessor and data stored from the input for
processing and for the output for outputting.

Ø The input and output sections are where the processor receives
information from external devices and communicates information to
external devices. The inputs might be from switches, or other sensors

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such as photo-electric cells, as in the counter mechanism, temperature

sensors, or flow sensors, etc. The outputs might be to motor starter
coils, solenoid valves, etc
(b) What do you understand the logic gate? Explain with one example how
does logic gate work.

In digital system, such as computer systems are represented by two

different voltage levels or two different current levels.

If the more positive of the two voltage levels represents a logic '1' and
the less positive of the two levels represents a logic '0', then the logic system is
referred to as positive logic system.

If the more positive of the two voltages or currents level represents a

logic '0' and the less positive of the two levels represents a logic '1', then the
logic system is referred to as a negative logic system.

The basic logic gate is the most basic building block of any digital system.
Each one of the basic logic gate is a piece of hardware or an electronic circuit
that can be used to implement some basic logic expression.

AND Gate

Ø An AND gate is a logic circuit having two or more inputs and one output.

Ø The output of AND gate is HIGH (logic '1') only when all of its inputs are
in the HIGH state. In all other cases, the output is logic '0'.

Ø It is used fire alarm system, when smoke and heat or flame detector
activate, the pump will run. If one of detectors activates the pump will not
run and alarm sounded only.

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
Figure. Two-input AND Gate 1 1 1

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ww20.(a) Make symbols and truth table of the output of the following two input
logic gate.
( i ) AND ( ii ) OR ( iii ) XOR ( iv ) XNOR (8)
(b) Draw the block diagram of the major components of a common PLC.
(8)
Answer
(a)
(i) AND Symbol Truth Table
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) OR Symbol Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) XOR Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1

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1 1 0

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(iv) XNOR Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(b) Draw the block diagram of the major components of a common PLC.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
mmmc6(b)Draw a ladder diagram of PLC programme using logic OR gate and
AND gate to control a pump. (4 marks)

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6.( b )Ladder diagram of PLC programmeto control a pump.

ww3. (a) What is the integrated circuit? (10 marks)

(b) Describe the advantages of IC. (6 marks)

3. (a)Integrated Circuit

Ø An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip.

Ø IC is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny

resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated.

Ø An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer

memory, or microprocessor.

Ø A particular IC is categorized as either linear (analog) or digital, depending

on its intended application.

Ø Linear ICs have continuously variable output that depends on the input
signal level. As the term implies, the output signal level is a linear function
of the input signal level. When the instantaneous output is graphed
against the instantaneous input, the plot appears as a straight line.
Linear ICs are used as audio-frequency (AF) and radio-frequency (RF)
amplifiers. The operational amplifier (op amp) is a common device in
these applications.

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Ø Digital ICs operate at only a few defined levels or states, rather than over
a continuous range of signal amplitudes. These devices are used in
computers, computer networks, modems, and frequency counters. The
fundamental building blocks of digital ICs are logic gates, which work with
binary data, that is, signals that have only two different states, called low
(logic 0) and high (logic 1).

3. (b)Advantages of IC

Integrated circuits have several advantages over individual, or discrete,

components.

[Link]
IC design is economy of space. ICs are far more compact than equivalent
circuits made from individual transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors.

[Link] speed
Since the interconnections among components are physically tiny, the ICs
making high switching speeds possible.

[Link] power requirement

ICs use less power than equivalent discrete-component circuits and. It
also minimizes the problems such as frequency drift and generation of internal
noise.

[Link]
Integrated circuits are reliable because all interconnections are sealed
within the IC case therefore, preventing corrosion or the intrusion of dust.

[Link] of maintenance

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Integrated-circuit technology lowers maintenance costs, because repair

procedures are simplified when failures do occur.

mmea20.(a) Sketch and describe about Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor(8)

(b) Explain about IGBT brick test procedure.(8)

(a)IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

The Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three terminal power

semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch.
In newer device, it is noted for combining high efficiency and fast
switching.
It switches electric power in such as Variable Frequency Drives (VDFs),
variable speed refrigerators etc.

Figure: IGBT equivalent circuit Figure: IGBT symbol

(b) IGBT brick test procedure

[Link] out G1 to E1 and G2 to E2. Using multimeter set to check diodes.

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[Link] across the C1-C2E1 junction.

(+) probe on C1
(-) probe on C2E1
you should see an open circuit.
Switch the probes. You should see a diode drop on the meter.

[Link] across the C2E1-E2 junction.

(+) probe on C2E1
(-) probe on E2
you should see an open circuit.
Switch the probes. You should see a diode drop on the meter.
[Link] a 9 volt* battery, connect the (+) terminal to G1 and the (-) terminal to
E1.

[Link] multimeter set to check diodes, You should see a diode drop across the
C1-C2E1 junction.

[Link] the (+) terminal to G2 and the (-) terminal to E2. You should see a
diode drop across the C2E1-E2 junction.

[Link] the IGBT passed all of the above tests, the IGBT is good.

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[Link] with the aid of sketch the working principle of IGBT in

varying motor speed control. (16)

Answer

Ø The Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three terminal power

semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch.

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Ø This type of converter is used for induction motor drives and uses transis-
tors as the switching devices.

Ø In newer device, it is noted for combining high efficiency and fast

switching. (e.g. at 20 kHz in a PWM converter). See Fig.

Ø In this system, Variable speed drive (VSD) consists of bridge rectifier, IGBT,
capacitor and control electronics.

Ø The programming unit digitally controls the control electronics of VSD

with programmable logic controller (PLC). Many operational parameter
can be programmed into the VSD form this unit and then can be easily
networked to other computer devices.

Ø The fixed 3-phase AC power (eg.440V, 60Hz) supplied the bridge rectifier
to convert rectified DC voltage that will be smooth by the capacitor.

Ø Moreover, the converter will not be able to allow the power from motor
load to regeneration back into the main supply during a braking
operation.

Ø The pulse width modulation (PWM) using IGBTs will invert the variable
frequency 3 phase AC supply to motor by varying pulse widths and
polarity of DC voltage. (Shown fig. eg 0.5-120Hz).

Ø The VSD can be closely tuned to the connected motor drive to achieve
optimum control and protection limits for the overall drive.

Ø By addition of feedback from shaft encoder, speed regulation against load

changes is very good and can be made very precise.

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ww25.(a) Explain with the aid of simple sketch the operation of NPN
transistor. (8)
(b) Explain about unijunction and thyristor with sketch. (8)

ww22.(a) Explain with the aid of simple sketch the operation of PNP
transistor. (8)
(b) Explain any two of the following with the aid of simple sketch.
(i) MOSFET operation
(ii) Snubber circuit (4)
(iii) Thyristor (4)

mmea16.(a) Describe briefly about Diode.(4)

(b) Describe about Silicon Control Rectifier.(6)
(c) Explain about rectification with sketch.(6)

mmea17.
(a) Explain about BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor).(8)
(b) Describe about NPN and PNP transistor with sketch.(8)

mmea18.
(a) Describe about Op-amp (Operational Amplifier)(8)
(b) Explain about amplification.(8)
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mmea19.
(a) Describe briefly about Thyristor.(8)
(b) Explain about GTO (Gate Turn Off Thyristor) (8)

Explain with the aid of simple sketch the operation of PNP transistor.

Operation of pnp transistor

Ø Figure shows the basic connection of a pnp transistor.

Ø The forward bias causes the holes in the p – type emitter to flow
towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.

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Ø As these holes cross into the n – type base, they tend to combine with
the electrons.

Ø As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore only a few holes (
less than 5 %) combine with the electrons.

Ø The remainder ( more than 95 %) cross into the collector region to

constitute collector current IC.

Ø In this way, almost the entire emitter current flow in the collector
circuit.

Ø It may be noted that current conduction within pnp transistor is by

holes. However in the external connecting wires, the current is still by
electrons.

Explain with the aid of simple sketch the operation of NPN transistor.

Operation of NPN transistor

Ø Figure shows the basic operation npn transistor.

Ø The forward bias causes the electrons in the n – type emitter to flow
towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.
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Ø As these electrons flow through the p – type base, they tend to combine
with holes.

Ø As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons
( less than 5 % 0 combine with holes to constitute base + current IB.

Ø The remainder ( more than 95% ) cross over into the collector region to
constitute collector current IC.

Ø In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

Ø It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base current. IE
= IC + I B
About BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

Ø The BJT is a three terminal device and it comes in two different types.
The npnBJT and the pnpBJT.

Ø The BJT symbols and their corresponding block diagrams are shown on
Figure.

Ø The BJT is fabricated with three separately doped regions. The npn
device has one p region between two n regions and the pnp device has
one n region between two p regions.

Fig. BIJ symbols and block diagram of PNP and NPN Trasistor

About NPN and PNP transistor with sketch

The power transistor is part of a family of three-layer devices. The three layers
or terminals of a transistor are the base, the collector, and the emitter. The
two types of a transistor are termed npn and pnp.
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Thyristor

Ø Thyristors are semiconductor devices with three leads.

Ø A small current at one lead will allow a much larger current to flow
through the other two leads.

Ø The controlled current is either on or off.

Ø Therefore thyristors do not amplify fluctuating signals like transistor s do

instead they are solid – state switches.

Ø There are two families of thyristors, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs ) and
TRIACs.

Ø SCRs switch is for direct current and TRIACs switch is for alternating
current

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Thyristor Gate Turn Off Thyristor

Gate Turn Off Thyristor

The gate turn off thyristor is a special type of transistor which is a high power
semiconductor device.

The gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is a four layer PNPN power semiconductor
switching device.

GTO can be turned on by gate signal of posistive polarity and can also be turned
off by gate signal of negative polarity.

Silicon Control Rectifier

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (or Semiconductor Controlled Rectifier) is a four

layer solid state device that controls current flow.

It is a 4-layered 3-terminal device and SCRs are mainly used in devices to convert
AC to DC.

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Rectification

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), to direct

current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as
rectification.

The rectifier circuits can be half-wave or full-wave using with step down
transformer and semiconductor diodes as shown in figure below.

Fig. Bridge Rectifier: full wave rectifier using 4 diodes

Diode

Ø Diode is an electronic device that allows the passage of current in only

one direction.

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Ø Thus the diode can be done as electronic version of check valve.

Ø The diodes most commonly used in electronic circuits today are

semiconductor diodes.

Uni-junction transistor

It has three terminals and one junction.

It is a three –terminal semiconductor device with a single emitter lead and two
base leads, used primarily as a switching device.

The device consists of a bar of lightly doped high resistivity semiconductor,

usually n type.

With an opposite polarity region of highly doped low resistivity material

located near the centre of the bar.

Ohmic contacts are formed to each end of the bar base 1 and base 2 and to the
central region emitter.

Snubber circuit

Snubber circuits are essential for diodes used in switching circuits.

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It can save a diode from overvoltage spikes, which may arise during the reverse
recovery process.

A very common snubber circuit for a power diode consists of a capacitor and a
resistor connected in parallel with the diode.

When the reverse recovery current decrease, the capacitor property will try to
retain the voltage across it, which is approximately the voltage across the diode.

The resistor will also help to dissipate some of the energy stored in the
conductor.

About Op-amp (Operational Amplifier)

Ø An operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a DC-coupled high gain electronic

voltage amplifier with a differential input and a single-ended output.

Ø Op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential

amplifier include fully differential amplifier ( similar to Op-amp, but with
two outputs).

Ø Its original use for mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, differentiation and integration

Ø With the addition of suitable external feedback components, the modern

day op-amp can be employed for a variety of applications.

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About amplifier.

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Ø An amplifier must have a transistor partially turned on.

Ø To turn the transistor partially on, you apply a small voltage to the base of
the transistor.

Ø This procedure is called biasing the transistor.

Ø In the example in Figure, in order to bias the transistor, resistors R1 and

R2 are connected to the base of the transistor and configured as a voltage
divider.

Ø The output of this voltage divider supplies enough voltage to the base of
the transistor to turn the transistor on and allow current to flow through it.

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