Basic Electronics Engineering (BXE)

Unit-V
Sensors
By Mr. M. A. Amritkar
Assistant Professor
Department of Basic Engineering Science (E & TC)
Guru Gobind Singh College of Engineering & Research Centre,
Nashik
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 1
 Definition of Sensor:
 A sensor is a device which detects one form of energy and
produces corresponding electrical signals.
Definition of Transducer:
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy
into another form of energy.

Thus sensor is a type of transducer.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 2
Classification of sensors or transducers-
 The sensors are classified based upon various aspects as
follows-
1. Based upon transduction principle
2. Based on necessity of excitation for obtaining voltage or current
output
3. Based on direct or indirect sensing of measurand
4. Based on the form of output
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 3
1. Based upon transduction principle:
1. Resistive sensors- The output of resistive sensors is change in resistance corresponding
to change in measurand.
Ex. Strain gauge, resistance temperature detector (RTD), Thermistor.
2. Capacitive sensors- The output of capacitive sensor is change in capacitance
corresponding to change in measurand.
3. Inductive sensors- The output of inductive sensors is change in inductance
Corresponding to change in measurand.
Ex. linear variable differential transformer (L.V.D.T.)
4. Piezoelectric sensor- It converts pressure signal electrical signal.
5. Thermoelectric sensor- It converts thermal energy into voltage signal.
Ex. Thermocouple
6. Photovoltaic sensor or photo electric sensor- It has change in electrical properties due
to incident light.
Ex. Solar cell, LDR, photo diode
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 4
2. Based on necessity of excitation for obtaining voltage or
current output:
1. Active sensor- Active sensor is a sensor which does not require any
external energy to generate voltage or current output upon applying input
measurand.
Ex. Thermocouple, piezoelectric sensor, solar cell.
2. Passive sensor- Passive sensor is a sensor or which require external
energy to generate voltage or current output upon applying input
measurand.
Ex. R.T.D., strain gauge, L.V.D.T., L.D.R.
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 5
3. Based on direct or indirect sensing of measurand-
1. Primary sensor- The sensor which accept measurand as input and convert
it into another quantity corresponding to input is called as primary sensor.
Ex.- LVDT for displacement measurement, strain gauge for pressure
measurement.

2. Secondary sensor- The sensor which accept output of primary sensor as

input and coverts it into another quantity is called secondary sensor.
Ex. LVDT for pressure measurement.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 6
4. Based on the form of output-
1. Analog sensors- The output of analog sensors is in analog form.

Ex. LVDT, Strain Gauge, Thermocouple

2. Digital Sensors- The output of digital sensors is in digital code

form.
Ex. Rotary and absolute encoders, proximity switches.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 7
 Motion Sensors

 Motion sensors are used to sense or measure the motion

related parameters like displacement, velocity, acceleration
 These Sensors are available for linear as well as rotary
motion.
Examples:
1. LVDT
2. Accelerometer
Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 1
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

 LVDT is widely used sensor for the measurement of linear

displacement.
 It is a transformer with one primary winding and two
secondary winding.
 It works on the principle of voltage transformer (mutual
induction).

Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 2

 LVDT: Construction

 LVDT has a primary and two secondary

winding S1 & S2 wound on cylindrical
former.
 Both secondary winding have equal turns and
they are identically placed inside the former.

 The soft Iron or Ferrite core is placed inside the former.

 The primary winding is fed through AC excitation source.
 The object whose displacement is to be measured is connected to core through arm.
 The entire assembly is enclosed in a stainless steel body with electromagnetic
shielding. Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 3
 LVDT: Working
 The two secondaries of LVDT are connected
in series opposition as shown in figure.
 The primary of LVDT is fed by AC excitation.
 Then voltage is transformed to secondaries
due to mutual inductance between primary
and secondary winding.
 The voltages induced in S1 & S2 are
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑆1 = 𝑚1 & 𝑉𝑆2 = 𝑚2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The mutual inductances m1 & m2 depend on core position. As the two secondaries
are connected in series opposition, the output voltage is
𝑑𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑆2 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑉Prof.
0 ∝ 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
Mukesh. A. Amritkar 4
 LVDT: Characteristics
 The net mutual inductance (𝑚1 − 𝑚2)
changes with core position.
 When the core is at centre, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 and net
voltage is zero. This is referred as null
position.
 Now as core moves towards S1, es1 becomes
greater than es2 and net voltage is positive.
 Similarly when core moves towards S2, es2 becomes greater than es1 and net voltage
is negative (with 180 phase shift).
 Thus as the object moves, corresponding voltage with polarity is available at the
output. Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 5
 Accelerometer:

 It is a sensor used for measurement of acceleration.

 It is also used for measurement of vibration, shock.
 The basic accelerometer sensor is mechanical system with
mass, damper and spring. Such arrangement is known as
seismic instrument.

Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 6

 Accelerometer: Construction

 The accelerometer consist of mass, damper and

spring as shown in figure.
 The mass is suspended freely and is connected
to casing through damper and spring.
 The mass damper spring assembly is enclosed
by a casing.

Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 7

 Accelerometer: Working
 Due to application of force the acceleration takes place.
 Hence mass-damper-spring experiences a displacement x and the casing experience
a displacement y.
 Then the relative displacement (absolute displacement) is x – y.
 The acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement with following relation-
𝑥 1 𝑒 𝑗∅
=
𝑦 𝑊𝑛 2 1 − 𝛽2 + (2𝜉𝛽)2
𝑘
Where, 𝑊𝑛 = , K= spring stiffness constant, m= mass
𝑚
𝑊 −1 (2𝜉𝛽)
𝛽 = 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝛽 = , W= frequency of force, 𝜙 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑊𝑛 (1−𝛽2 )
Thus by measuring x with displacement sensor attached to mass and knowing all
constants (k, m, B) the acceleration can be measured.
Prof. Mukesh. A. Amritkar 8
 Temperature Sensors
 The sensor that change their output with change in
temperature are known as temperature sensors.
Examples:
1. Thermocouple,
2. RTD,
3. Thermistor,
4. Pyrometer.
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 1
 Thermocouple:
 It is the active temperature sensor which generates voltage
proportional to applied temperature.
Principle: If two dissimilar pure metals are joined together at each end to form a
loop with two junctions and a temperature difference exists between two junctions
then a thermo-e.m.f. (voltage) proportional to temperature difference is generated.
𝑉0 ∝ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑉0 = 𝐶 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Where, C is sensitivity of thermocouple in 𝑚𝑉 °𝐶 or 𝜇𝑉 °𝐶.
The above principle is known as see back effect.
Thus by measuring output voltage across the junction the temperature can be
determined. Prof. M. A. Amritkar 2
 Thermocouple: Construction

 The two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two junction.
 The thermocouple junctions are placed in protective casing of stainless
steel and output terminals are made available for voltage measurement.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 3
 Thermocouple: Working
 One of the thermocouple junction is kept as reference junction (J1).
 The reference junction is kept at ambient temperature T1 and the
measuring junction is exposed to chamber whose temperature is to be
measured.
 Then due to temperature difference the thermo e.m.f. Vo generated.
We have,
𝑉0 = 𝐶 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑉0
∴ 𝑇2 = + 𝑇1
𝐶
For better accuracy, the reference junction is kept in ice bath to have T1=0,
𝑉0
Then 𝑇2 =
𝐶
This eliminates error due to fluctuation in an ambient temperature.
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 4
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
Principle: The electrical resistance of metals vary with change
in temperature. The relation is given by,
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0 ∆𝑇)

Where,
𝑅T = resistance at 𝑇 0 C
𝑅0 = resistance at 00 C
𝛼0 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 00 𝐶
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑇 − 0 = 𝑇)

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 5
 RTD: Construction
 The figure below shows typical wire wound RTD
arrangement.
 The temperature sensitive coil is wound around the mica cross
framework.
 The coil should be strain
free.
 This assembly is placed in
evacuated Pyrex tube.
 The terminals are made
available for resistance
measurement.
Prof. M. A. Amritkar 6
 RTD: Working
 The RTD is placed inside the chamber whose temp. is to be
measured.
 Due to change in temperature, the resistance of coil gets
changed.
 By measuring the resistance, temp. can be determined.
 We have,
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼0 𝑇 = 𝑅0 + 𝛼0 𝑅0 𝑇
𝑅𝑇 − 𝑅0
∴𝑇=
𝛼0 𝑅0

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 7
 RTD: Measurement System
 In temperature measurement system with RTD, instead of measuring resistance the
bridge arrangement is used to get proportionate voltage signals at output.
 The bridge arrangement is shown below-
 In this arrangement change in resistance of RTD causes voltage at output which is
proportional to temperature.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 8
 Thermistor
 Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors.
 Thermistors are manufactured using semiconductors.
Principle: The resistance of the thermistor change with the
change in temperature.
The relation between resistance of thermistor and temperature
is,
1 1
𝛽 −
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0

Where,
𝑅𝑇 = Resistance at 𝑇 0 C
𝑅0 = Resistance at 𝑇𝑜 0 C
𝛽 = Material constant Prof. M. A. Amritkar 9
 Thermistor: Types
 Thermistors are available in two types as-
1. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors
2. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors

 The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases with increase in temperature while

resistance of PTC thermistor increase with increase in temperature.
 The characteristics curves of PTC and NTC thermistors are shown in figure-

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 10
 Thermistor: Measurement System
 Thermistor is inserted in the system of which the
temperature is to be measured.
 The resistance of thermistor changes with change in
temperature.
 The bridge circuit is used to convert the change in
resistance into corresponding voltage.
 The arrangement is as shown in figure. In this circuit, R1, R2 and R3 are fixed
resistors and RTH (thermistor) is variable resistor.
 As the temperature of system changes, the resistance of thermistor changes and
corresponding voltage is produced at output terminals.

Prof. M. A. Amritkar 11
 Optical Sensors
 The optical sensors are sensitive to light.
 The electrical properties of these sensors change with the
intensity of light falling on them.
 The following optical Sensors are commonly used.
1. Photo diode
2. Photo transistor
3. Photo voltaic cell
4. Photo multiplier tube
5. Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 1
 Optical Sensors: LDR
 It is a device whose resistance depends on the intensity of
light falling on it. It is also called as photo resistor.
Principle- The resistivity of LDR decreases with increase in
light intensity.
 LDR is represented by a symbol-

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 2

 Optical Sensors: LDR
Construction-
 The constructional details of LDR are shown in figure below.
 The LDR has a lightly doped active semiconductor region deposited inside semi
insulating material.
 The metal contact is placed on the active layer.
 To have relatively large area that is exposed to light,
the pattern is cut in the metallisation on the surface of
the active area which allows light to pass through.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 3

Working- Optical Sensors: LDR
 LDR is made up of semiconductor material with high resistance.
 It has resistance because there are very less free electrons and majority of electrons
are locked into the crystal lattice structure.
 When the light falls on the LDR, the photons are absorbed by the active layer region.
 The energy of absorbed photons is transferred to electrons locked into the crystal
lattice.
 This energy makes the electrons free to move which
allows conduction of electricity.
 Due to this action, the resistivity of LDR falls.
 The typical characteristics of LDR are as shown in figure.
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 4
 Semiconductor Gas Sensor

Principle- Semiconductor gas sensors rely on the gas coming

into metal oxide surface and then undergoing either oxidation
or reduction.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 5

 Semiconductor Gas Sensor
Construction-
 It consists of a metal oxide film as a sensing element.
 The exact metal depends upon the gas to be detected.
 The film is connected to electrodes and from electrodes the connecting wires are
taken out for measurement
of resistance.
 This sensing element is covered with
a sensor body having sensor cap and
a filter.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 6

 Semiconductor Gas Sensor
Working-
 When the gas is allowed to enter the sensor body, it is absorbed by the sensing
element which changes it resistance.
 The change in resistance is generally proportional to gas concentration.
 Thus a linear equation between resistance and gas concentration can be
established.
 Also, the resistance change can be converted into voltage using electronic circuit.
 The gas sensors are generally used for detection of carbon monoxide (co), carbon
dioxide (co2), methane, propane, oxygen. According the material of sensing
element is selected.
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 7
 Bio Sensor

It is a device which uses living organism or biological

molecules (bio receptors) to detect the presence of chemicals.
Principle- A specific enzyme (type of bio receptor) or
preferred biological material is deactivated. The change in
properties of biomaterial is related to chemical under
detection.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 8

 Bio Sensor: Block Diagram

Bio Data
Sample Transduser Amplifier
receptor processing

Bio receptor- The bio receptor is in the vicinity of sample, depending on the
sample and its concentration the properties of bio receptor changes. The bio
receptor can be enzymes, tissues, microorganism, chemoreceptors or organelles.
Transducer- The transducer converts one form of signal into another form. In
this case, the change in properties of bio receptor is converted into electrical
signal.
Amplifier- The electrical signals produced by transducer are very weak. Hence
the output of transducer is amplifieed using amplifier.
Data processing- The amplified electrical signal is calibrated against
composition and concentration of sample.
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 9
 Mechanical Sensors- Strain Gauge
Mechanical Sensors: There are two types of Mechanical
sensors – 1. Strain Gauge & 2. Load Cell.
Strain Gauge:
 Strain gauge is an elastic resistive transducer which converts
mechanical elongation and compression (strain) into change
in resistance.
 Strain gauge is widely used for the measurement of strain,
pressure, force and weight.
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 1
 Strain Gauge: Principle
 Resistance of any conductor depends on its resistivity, length or cross
sectional area.
 Hence if there is change in length or cross sectional area due to
compression or elongation, resistance gets changed.
 Also, in elastic material, upon application of stress (pressure),
proportionate strain takes place in material and resistance gets
changed.
 The resistance is given by,
𝑅 = 𝜚𝑙/𝐴
Where, 𝜚 = resistivity
l = length
A = cross sectional area
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 2
 Strain Gauge: Working
 The resistance is given by,
𝑅 = 𝜚𝑙/𝐴
Where, 𝜚 = resistivity
l = length
A = cross sectional area
 Now when strain gauge undergoes tension or compression its
dimensions are changes as shown in figure-
 These change in l and D causes change in resistance as,
𝑅 = 𝜚𝑙/𝐴
𝐴𝑑 𝜚𝑙 − 𝜚𝑙𝑑𝐴
∴ 𝑑𝑅 =
𝐴2

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 3

 Strain Gauge: Working
 Continue…
𝐴 𝜚𝑑𝑙 + 𝐴𝑙𝑑𝜚 − 𝜚𝑙𝑑𝐴
=
𝐴2
𝐴 𝜚𝑑𝑙 + 𝑙𝑑𝜚 − 𝜚𝑙𝑑𝐴
=
𝐴2
𝑑𝑅 𝐴𝜚𝑑𝑙 + 𝐴𝑙𝑑𝜚 − 𝜚𝑙𝑑𝐴 𝑑
∴ = 2
𝜚
𝑅 𝐴 𝐴
𝑑𝑅 𝐴2 𝜚𝑑𝑙 + 𝐴2 𝑙𝑑𝑠 − 𝐴𝜚𝑙𝑑𝐴
∴ =
𝑅 𝐴2 𝜚𝑙
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝜚 𝑑𝐴
= + −
𝑙 𝜚 𝐴

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 4

 Strain Gauge: Working
 Continue…
Let the conductor has circular cross section. Then,
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷2 /4
2𝜋𝐷𝑑𝐷 𝜋𝐷𝑑𝐷
∴ 𝑑𝐴 = =
4 2
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝜚 2𝑑𝐷
∴ = + −
𝑅 𝑙 𝜚 𝐷
𝑑𝑙
Now axial strain, 𝜀𝑎 =
𝑙
𝑑𝐷
Lateral strain, 𝜀𝐿 = −
𝐷
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜚
∴ = + 𝜀𝑎 + 2𝜀𝐿
𝑅 𝜚
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 5
 Strain Gauge: Working
 Continue…
The Poisson’s ratio is defined as,
𝜀𝐿
𝜈=
𝜀𝑎
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜚
∴ = + 𝜀𝑎 1 + 2𝑢
𝑅 𝜚
𝑑𝜚
≈0
𝜚
𝑑𝑅
= 𝜀𝑎 1 + 2𝑢
𝑅

The sensitivity (gauge factor) is defined as,

𝑑𝑅
𝑅 𝜀𝑎 1 + 2𝑢
𝑆= = = 1 + 2𝑢 = 𝐺. 𝐹.
𝑑𝑙 𝜀𝑎
𝑙
𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅
And = 𝜀𝑎 (𝐺. 𝐹. ) or 𝜀𝑎 =
𝑅 𝐺.𝐹. 𝑅
Thus if change in resistance is measured, strain can be determined.
Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 6
 Load Cell
 Load cell is a sensor used for force and weight measurement.
 It uses strain gauge as sensing element. Strain gauge produces change
in resistance proportional to applied pressure. The relation between
force and pressure is,

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
∴𝑃∝𝐹
Hence strain gauge produces change in resistance proportional to
applied force. Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 7
 Load Cell: Configurations

The load cell is generally used in two configurations given

below.
1. Column type load cell configuration
2. Cantilever beam cell configuration

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 8

 Load Cell: Column type
In this arrangement, two strain gauges are mounted on a column in opposite
direction. When force applied, one strain gauge undergoes elongation while the
other undergoes compression. Hence resistance of one strain gauge increase and that
of the other strain gauge decrease. The strain gauges are connected in adjacent arms
of ridge which produces output proportional to applied force. The bridge circuit is as
shown in figure.

𝑽𝟎 ∝ 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 9

 Load Cell: Cantilever Beam
In this arrangement, four strain gauges are mounted on the cantilever beam in such a
way that strain gauges undergo compression, when force is applied at free end of
cantilever. Thus all four strain gauges show change resistance (two increases and two
decreases). The change in resistances can be converted into voltage using bridge as
shown in figure. The produced voltage is proportional to applied force and it is four
times than the voltage obtained with single strain gauge.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 10

 Mechanical Pressure Sensors

The mechanical pressure sensors formed of elastic elements.

The different elastic pressure sensors are-
1. Bourdon tube
2. Bellows
3. Diaphragm

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 1

 Bourdon tube: Construction
The bourdon tube the most commonly used elastic pressure
sensor in mechanical dial gauges.
The bourdon tubes are available in C-shape, spiral shape,
twisted tube configuration and helical shape.
C-shape tube is used in dial gauges.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 2

 Bourdon tube: Construction
Continue…
 The C-shape bourdon tubes are made
out of elliptically flattened tube bent in such
a way that produces C shape.
 One end of tube is sealed and the other
end is exposed to pressure.
 The figure shows construction of pressure
gauges with bourdon tube.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 3

 Bourdon tube: Working
 When the pressure is applied at open end of bourdon tube,
the tube bends to straighten.
 This causes movement of sealed end of tube.
 This movement is connected to pointer through the
mechanical linkage.
 Thus pointer moves and shows pressure on calibrated scale.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 4

 Bellows: Construction
 A metallic bellows is formed from a series of circular parts resembled in
folds.
 These circular parts are joined in such a way that they are expanded or
contracted axially by change in applied pressure.
 The figure below shows construction of pressure gauge using bellows.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 5

 Bellows: Working
 When pressure is applied to bellows it expands and this movement is used
to move the pointer on calibrated scale.
 The bellows are also differential mode to measure differential pressure.
 In this case both sides of bellows have open ends for applying the pressure.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 6

 Diaphragms: Construction
 Diaphragms are flexible circular disks either flat or
corrugated. The figure below shows Construction of
diaphragm.

Diaphragm without Pressure Diaphragm after applying pressure

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 7

 Diaphragms: Working
 From figures it can be seen that when pressure is applied the
flat diaphragm bends and causes deflection at centre.
 This deflection of at centre can be converted into movement
of pointer on calibrated scale by using mechanical linkage.

Prof. Mukesh A. Amritkar 8