Final Worksheet

Aritra Dey
May 2025

Easy
Pn r
1. Let P (x) = r=0 cr x be a polynomial with real coefficients with c0 > 0 and
P[n/2] c2r
r=0 2r+1 < 0. Prove that P has root in (−1, 1).

Solution : P (0) = c0 > 0.

Note that
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
I= P (x)dx = P (x)dx + P (x)dx ( Put x = −t)
−1 −1 0
Z 0 Z 1
= P (−t)(−dt) + P (x)dx
1 0
Z 1
= [P (−x) + P (x)]dx
0
Z 1 [n/2] [n/2]
X
2r
X c2r
=2 c2r x dx = 2 .
0 r=0 r=0
2r + 1
P[n/2] c2r
By data, r=0 2r+1 < 0, so that I < 0. Now P is a continuous function on [−1, 1]
and its integral I over [−1, 1] is negative. Hence there is k ∈ [−1, 1] such that P (k) < 0.

(Recall: If f is a continuous function on [a, b](a < b) such that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b],
Rb
then a f (x)dx ≥ 0.) Also, P (0) = c0 > 0. Therefore, since P is a continuous function
on [−1, 1], there is a number α between k and 0 such that P (α) = 0.

2. If 1, α1 , α2 , · · · , αn−1 are nth roots of unity, prove that

1 1 1 (n − 2)2n−1 + 1
+ + ··· + = .
2 − α1 2 − α2 2 − αn−1 2n − 1

Solution: Let f (x) = xn − 1 so that α0 = 1, α1 , α2 , . . . , αn−1 are the n roots of

f (x) = 0. Hence we have the identity

f (x) = (x − α0 ) (x − α1 ) (x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn−1 )
Taking logarithm on both the sides and differentiating we get the identity

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Final worksheet Aritra Dey

nxn−1 1 1 1 1
n
= + + + ··· +
x −1 x − α0 x − α1 x − α2 x − αn−1
for x different from all the αi . So putting x = 2 we get,

1 1 1 1 n2n−1
+ + + ··· + = n , (α0 = 1)
2 − α0 2 − α1 2 − α2 2 − αn−1 2 −1
1 1 1 n2n−1 (n − 2)2n−1 + 1
+ + ··· + = n −1=
2 − α1 2 − α2 2 − αn−1 2 −1 2n − 1

3. Let f (x) be a monic polynomial of degree 4 such that f (1) = 10, f (2) = 20, f (3) = 30.
Find f (12) + f (−8).

Solution: Note that f (1) = 10 means that the remainder is 10 when f (x) is divided by
x − 1. Similarly, the remainder is 10 × 2 when f (x) is divided by x − 2 and the remainder
is 10 × 3 when f (x) is divided by x − 3. Hence we can take the degree 4 monic polynomial
f (x) to be f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − k) + 10x, where k is a parameter. Then [4
mks]

f (12) = 11 · 10 · 9(12 − k) + 120 = 990(12 − k) + 120,

f (−8) = (−9)(−10)(−11)(−8 − k) − 80 = −990(−8 − k) − 80.
Adding, f (12) + f (−8) = 990(12 − k + 8 + k) + 40 = 990(20) + 40 = 19840. [2 mks]

4. Let p(x) be a polynomial with positive integer coefficients. You can ask the question:
What is p(n) for any positive integer n ? What is the minimum number of questions to
be asked to determine p(x) completely? Justify.

Solution: The minimum number of questions needed is 2 . For this, let p(x) be a
polynomial with positive integer coefficients say, p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + ak xk . We
can ask the question: what is p(1) ? Let p(1) = N .
Here N = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + ak > ai , ∀i and N is a known number.
Also, what is p(N ) ? So p(N ) = a0 + a1 N + a2 N 2 + · · · + ak N k is a known number.
Now express p(N ) to base N , then ith digit gives ai , ∀i because ai < N, ∀i. Thus p(x)
is determined. Note that asking only one question i.e. asking for the value p(n) for a
particular choice of n, is not sufficient to determine the polynomial p(x).

Example. Suppose p(1) = 9 and p(9) = 193. Now we express 193 to base 9 :

193 = 21(9) + 4, 21 = 2(9) + 3, 2 = 0(9) + 2.

So the remainders are, starting with the last, 2, 3, 4. So 193 = 2 (92 ) + 3(9) + 4 (90 ) =
(234)9 . So a2 = 2, a1 = 3, a0 = 4 and p(x) = 4 + 3x + 2x2 .

5. Let H be a finite set of distinct positive integers none of which has a prime factor
greater than 3 . Show that the sum of the reciprocals of the elements of H is smaller
than 3. Find two different such sets with sum of the reciprocals equal to 2.5 .

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Final worksheet Aritra Dey

Solution: The given condition implies that every n ∈ H, n is of the form n = 2α 3β ,

α, β ≥ 0. Since H is finite, ∃k ∈ N such that α ≤ k, β ≤ k for each n ∈ H. This implies

X1 k k k k
X 1 X 1 XX 1
≤1+ + +
n∈H
n i=1
2i j=1 3j i=1 j=1
2i 3j
k k k
! k !
X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1
=1+ + +
i=1
2i j=1 3j i=1
2i j=1
3j
  
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + ··· + k 1 + + ··· + k
2 2 3 3
1 1
1 − 2k+1 1 − 3k+1
         
1 1 3
= < =2 = 3.
1 − 1/2 1 − 1/3 1/2 2/3 2
LetPH = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}. Then n∈H n1 = 2.5. Let H = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 36, 72}.
P
Then n∈H n1 = 2.5.

6. On the parabola y = x2 , a sequence of points Pn (xn , yn ) is selected recursively where

the points P1 , P2 are arbitrarily selected distinct points. Having selected Pn , tangents
drawn at Pn−1 and Pn meet at say Qn . Suppose Pn+1 is the point of intersection of
y = x2 and the line passing through Qn parallel to Y-axis. Under what conditions on
P1 , P2

(a) both the sequences {xn } and {yn } converge?

(b) {xn } and {yn } both converge to 0 ?

Solution:

(a) Since yn = x2n , it is enough to discuss the convergence of {xn }. Tangents at xn , xn−1
are given by y = x2n + 2xn (x − xn) = 2xn x − x2n and y= 2xn−1 x − x2n−1 . Solving we get,

2
xn+1 = xn−12+xn . Therefore Pn+1 xn−12+xn , xn−12+xn . 4 marks Now all xn are within
the interval [x1 , x2 ] and all are distinct. Hence {xn } converges.

(b) We first consider a special case where x1 = 0, x2 = 1. Then the sequence {xn } is
0, 1, 21 , 34 , 21 + 18 , 12 + 81 + 16
1 1
, 2 + 81 + 32
1
Its sub sequence is 12 , 21 + 18 , 21 + 18 + 32
, · · · .P 1
, · · · which
∞ 1
are partial sums of the geometric series n=0 22n+1 which converges and sum is given by
2
3
. Thus in this case xn convereges to 32 . Now in general, for any x1 < x2 , we define
−x1
zn−1 = xxn2 −x 1
. Note that z0 = 0 and z1 = 1 and the sequence zn satisfies the relation
zn−1 +zn
zn+1 = 2
. Thus by the special case above, zn converges to 23 . Now observe that the
limit of xn is the real number x which divides the interval [x1 , x2 ] in the ratio 2 : 1. For
x = 0, we need to take x1 ̸= 0 and x2 = − 12 x1 .

7. In the complex plane, let u, v be two distinct solutions of z 2019 − 1 = 0. Find the
probability that |u + v| ≥ 1.

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Final worksheet Aritra Dey

Solution: Let u, v be two distinct solutions of z n − 1 = 0. Then we can write u =

ei2πk/n , v = ei2πm/n , m ̸= k. Observe that |u + v| = |u| 1 + uv = 1 + ei2π(m−k)/n =
p
|1 + cos(2π(m − k)/n) + i sin(2π(m − k)/n)| = 2 + 2 cos(2π(m − k)/n) Now |u + v| ≥ 1
if and only if −12
≤ cos 2π(m−k)
nn
. This is true if and only if −2π
3
≤ 2π(m−k)
n
≤ 2π
3
. This is
−1 m−k 1
true if and only if 3 ≤ n ≤ 3 . For n = 2019, there are 2 × 673 possibilities of m for
each k. Hence the required probability is 2×673×2019
2019×2018
= 2×673
2018
.

8. Let f (x) = a0 xn + · · · + an be a non-constant polynomial with real coefficients

satisfying

f (x)f 2x2 = f 2x3 + x

for all real numbers x.

(a) Show that an ̸= 0.

(b) Show that f has no real root.

(c) Find a polynomial f satisfying f (x)f (2x2 ) = f (2x3 + x) for all real numbers x.

Solution :

(a) Let k be the greatest index such that ak ̸= 0. Then the left hand side has a
form f (x)f (2x2 ) = a20 2n x3n + · · · + a2k 2n−k x3(n−k) and the right hand side has a form
f (2x3 + x) = a0 2n x3n + · · · + ak xn−k . So we must have

a2k 2n−k x3(n−k) = ak xn−k , ∀x ∈ R

which gives n = k, that is an = ak ̸= 0.

(b) Suppose x0 ̸= 0 is a root of f (x). Consider a sequence

xn+1 = 2x3n + xn , n ≥ 0
Note that if x0 > 0, then {xn } is increasing and if x0 < 0, then {xn } is decreasing.
From the assumption of the problem, it follows that if f (x0 ) = 0 with x0 = ̸ 0, then
f (xk ) = 0, ∀k. This shows that a non-constant polynomial of degree n has infinitely
many roots, which is impossible. Thus f has no real root.

(c) f (x) = x2 + 1

9. Prove that there do not exist functions f, g : R → R such that f (g(x)) = x2018 and
g(f (x)) = x2019 .

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Final worksheet Aritra Dey

Solution: Suppose there exist functions f, g : R → R such that f (g(x)) = x2018 and
g(f (x)) = x2019 . Therefore (f ◦g)(f (x)) = (f (x))2018 . Since the composition is associative,
we have f ◦ (g ◦ f )(x) = (f (x))2018 . This implies that

f x2019 = (f (x))2018 .

Since 2019 is an odd number, g◦f is an injective function. Therefore f is also injective.
Substituting x = 0, 1, −1 in the above equation, we get

(f (0))2018 = f (0), (f (1))2018 = f (1), (f (−1))2018 = f (−1).

But, only real solutions of x2018 = x are 0 and 1 . This implies that at least two
of f (0), f (1), f (−1) are same which contradicts the injectivity of the function f . Hence
there do not exist functions f, g : R → R such that f (g(x)) = x2018 and g(f (x)) = x2019 .

10. Let a1 , a2 , · · · be a sequence of natural numbers. Let (a, b) denote the greatest
common divisor (gcd) of a and b. If (am , an ) = (m, n) for all m ̸= n, prove that an = n
for all n ∈ N.

Solution: Note that (an , an2 ) = (n, n2 ) = n. Therefore n divides an . Let an = mn.
Then (an , amn ) = (n, mn) = n and (am , amn ) = (m, mn) = m. This implies that mn
divides amn . Since mn divides both amn and an , it divides their gcd n. Hence m = 1 and
thus an = n.

11. Let f : C → C be a function such that f (z)f (iz) = z 2 for all z ∈ C. Prove that
f (z) + f (−z) = 0 for all z ∈ C. Find such a function.

Solution: It is given that f (z)f (iz) = z 2 for all z ∈ C. Replacing z by iz, we get
f (iz)f (−z) = −z 2 . Adding these two expressions we get, f (iz)[f (z) + f (−z)] = 0.
From f (z)f (iz) = z 2 we deduce that f (z) = 0 if and only if z = 0. If z ̸= 0, then
f (iz) ̸= 0 and so f (z) + f (−z) = 0. If z = 0, then f (z)
 + f (−z) = 2f (0) = 0. Thus
−1
f (z) + f (−z) = 0, ∀z ∈ C. Example: f (z) = √2 + i √2 z or f (z) = √12 − i √12 z
1

R1
12. Let f : [0, 1] → (0, ∞) be aRcontinuous function satisfying 0
f (t)dt = 13 . Show that
c
there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that 0 f (t)dt = c − 21 .
Rx
Solution: Define g(x) = 0 f (t)dt + 12 . Then g : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is a continuous function.
R ctheorem, there1 exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that g(c) = c. Observe that c ̸= 0, 1.
By fixed point
Thus we get 0 f (t)dt = c − 2 .

13. Let f : R → R be a continuous function satisfying f 3 (x) = x. Prove that f 2 (x) = x.

Solution: We first prove that f is injective. Since, f (x) = f (y) =⇒ f 3 (x) = f 3 (y) =⇒
x = y hence, f is an injective function. Also, f is continuous and hence it is monotonic.
In case, f is increasing then for each x ∈ R,

case(i) x < f (x) : x < f (x) =⇒ f (x) < f 2 (x) =⇒ f 2 (x) < f 3 (x) = x, which is a
contradiction.

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Final worksheet Aritra Dey

case (ii) x > f (x) : x > f (x) =⇒ f (x) > f 2 (x) =⇒ f 2 (x) > f 3 (x) = x, which is a
contradiction. Hence, if f is increasing then f (x) = x, for each x ∈ R and hence we get,
f 2 (x) = x, ∀x ∈ R.
Now, let f be decreasing. x < y =⇒ f (x) > f (y) =⇒ f 2 (x) < f 2 (y) and thus f 2 is
increasing. x < f 2 (x) : x < f 2 (x) =⇒ f 2 (x) < f 4 (x) = f (x) i.e. f 2 (x) < f (x) and
thus we get, f 4 (x) < f 3 (x) = x. This gives, x < f 2 (x) < f 4 (x) < f 3 (x) = x. This is a
contradiction. case (ii) x > f 2 (x) : x > f 2 (x) =⇒ f 2 (x) > f 4 (x) i.e. f 2 (x) > f (x) and
thus we get, f 4 (x) > f 3 (x) = x. This gives, x > f 2 (x) > f 4 (x) > f 3 (x) = x. This is a
contradiction. Hence, we must have f 2 (x) = x, for all x ∈ R.

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