WORLD

GEOGRAPHY
Notes By : Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )
Date: 5 March 2025 - 19 March 2025
Source - Youtube ( Parmar Sir 3.0 ) , Chat GPT , Google , PYQS

TOPICS TO BE COVERED ARE

-​ UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

-​ LATITUDES - LONGITUDES , ROTATION - REVOLUTION
-​ TECTONIC PLATES - EARTH INTERIOR ( Geology )
-​ ROCKS , CONTINENTS AND OCEANS ( Geology )
-​ GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LANDFORMS
-​ WATER IN ATMOSPHERE
-​ WINDS
-​ WORLD MAP
-​ WORLD GEOGRAPHY STATIC GK
-​ IMPORTANT COUNTRIES
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TOPIC -1 UNIVERSE
AND THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
Topics to be Covered

-​ Big Bang Theory

-​ Universe
-​ Galaxies
-​ Formation of Stars
-​ Formation of Planets : The Stages
-​ Constellation
-​ Solar System
-​ About Planets
-​ Milky Way
-​ Celestial Bodies
-​ Dwarf Planet

A LITTLE IMPORTANT
-​ Study of Universe - Cosmology
-​ SuperNova - Explosion of a Star
-​ Pulsar - Neutron Star
-​ Black Hole - A place in space which has infinite gravity
-​ Study of celestial bodies - Astronomy
-​ “Steady Study Theory “ - By Fred Hoyle - Universe is expanding but by
maintaining its density and remaining constant.
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BIG BANG THEORY

●​ 13.8 Billion years ago

●​ Cosmic Microwave Background ( CMB ) - leftover from the Big Bang ,
discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965
●​ All the matter was in a tiny of Unimaginably small Volume , with
infinite temperature and infinite Density
●​ This can be said to be the death of That Tiny Ball
●​ At the Big Bang the ‘ Tiny Ball ‘ explodes Violently - Huge Expansion
●​ Within 300,000 years from the Big bang temperature dropped to 4500 K (
Kelvin ) and gave rise to Atomic Matter
●​ Given By George Lemaitra in 1951
●​ Redshift and Hubble's Law - Redshift proves the universe is expanding.
Hubble's law states that galaxies are moving away in proportion to their distance

FORMATION OF STARS
-​ Uneven Distribution of Matter and Energy in the Early Universe.
-​ This led to initial Differences in gravitational forces and it caused the matter to
get drawn together as bases for development of Galaxies
-​ A Galaxy stars to form by accumulation of Hydrogen Gas in the form of a very
large cloud Called Nebula ( Cloud of Dust and Gas )
-​ This laid to formation of Gaseous here by the formation of Stars

FORMATION OF PLANETS : THE

STAGES
-​ The stars are localized lumps of gas within a Nebula Gravitational force within
the lumps lead to formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotation Disc of
gas and Dust developed around the Gas core
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-​ Gas Cloud > Condenses > Matter around the core Develops into small
> Round objects made by the process of Cohesion
-​ These large numbers of small Planetesimals accrete to form fewer
large bodies in the form of planets.

CONSTELLATION
-​ Group of Stars
-​ Ursa Major - The Great bear “ Sapta Rishi “
-​ Asterism - Pattern of Stars in Group of Stars
-​ The Big Dipper - Ursa Major
-​ Cassiopeia - W - Shaped Constellation. Brightest star - Shedar
-​ Cygnus - Cross Shaped Constellation
-​ Orion - Brightest Star - Rigel Also known as “ The Hunter “

SOLAR SYSTEM
ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM
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-​ Theory - Nebula Laplace Theory

-​ Formed from Nebula - Cloud of Dust and Gases - Collapsed due to its gravity -
Formed in a Disc form- Because of pressure Hydrogen Molecules fused -
Sun formed in Center
-​ Matter revolving around condenses and form Planets
-​ This Theory is first propounded by Immanuel Kant - 1755 - Sun formed first
-​ Laplace added some other thing in this theory in 1769 - Planets formed first
-​ Located in Orion Spur
-​ Formed 4.8 Billion Years Ago

Formation of Solar System

-​ Tidal Hypothesis ( Sir James jeans ) - Suggests planets formed from the
Sun's material pulled out by a passing Star
-​ Planetesimal Hypothesis ( Chamberlin and Moulton ) - planets formed
by smaller celestial bodies colliding and merging

IMPORTANT ABOUT SOLAR SYSTEM

-​ Age of Earth - 4.5 Billion years ago

-​ It consists of The Sun ( 8 Planets ) , 63 Moons , Millions of smaller bodies like
asteroids and comets and huge quantity of Dust - Grains and Gases
-​ 288 Moons recognised by AIU
-​ Brightest / Nearest / Only Star - Sun
-​ Brightest star in Night Sky - Sirius
-​ Nearest star after Sun - Proxima Centauri
-​ Sun in the center
-​ 99% of Solar System mass is of Only Sun
-​ Mercury ,Venus , Earth and Mars are called Inner Planets ( Terrestrial
Planets ) - Solar Winds have taken away their Atmosphere. Hence , dont have so
many Gases
-​ Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus and Neptune are Outer Planets ( Jovian
Planets ) aka Gaseous Planets
-​ Earth’s Tilt - A wandering Star Hit the Earth a Long while Ago
-​ Asteroid Belt - These are Wandering Millions of Asteroids , Dust Particles.
Unable to join any Planet
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-​ Pluto - The 9th Planet but later removed by IAU ( International Astronomical
Unit ) in the meeting held in Prag on 24 August 2006 and downgraded it to a
Dwarf Planet - Was Slow , Very Far
-​ Kuiper Belt - In the end of Solar System ( Eris ) belt like Asteroid Belt
-​ Light year - 9.46 * 10^12 Km
-​ Parsec - A bigger unit than a Light year
-​ Oort Cloud - The outermost region of ice bodies , source of long - period comets
-​ Heliosphere - The sun's Magnetic field extends into space creating a protective
layer

SUN’S ATMOSPHERE

-​ The Solar atmosphere consists of the -

1.​ Photosphere - The Bright outer layer of sun that emits most of the
radiation , Visible part of Sun
2.​ Chromosphere - Just above the Photosphere. It is relatively a thin layer
of Burning Gases
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3.​ Corona - It is a distinctive atmosphere of Plasma that surrounds the sun

and other Celestial Bodies , Outer Layer - More temperature
-​ Sun Spot - A dark patch on the surface of the Sun
-​ Solar Wind - It is a stream of energized , Charged particles , primarily electrons
and protons , flowing outward from the Sun
-​ Solar Flares - They are a magnetic storm the sun which appears to be a very
bright spot and is a Gaseous Surface Eruption
-​ India became 4th country to Send mission on Sun - “Aditya L1”
-​ Lagrange Point
1.​ Point where satellite is placed for Stability
2.​ There are 5 Lagrange Point between Earth and Sun
3.​ Launch Vehicle - PSLV C57

THE UNIVERSE
-​ It contains everything that Exists
-​ It has Everything from Tiniest Subatomic Particles to Galactic SuperCluster ( The
Largest Structure Known )
-​ It contains about 100 Billion galaxies.
-​ Universe Was born by THE BIG BANG - From an unimaginably hot , Dense
Point called Singularity - This theory is Known As Big Bang Theory
-​ It is 13.8 Billions Years old as Big Bang happened then
-​ Big Bang Theory - According to this theory , all of the current and past matter in
the universe came into Existence at the same time. Since its Birth the universe is
Expanding at an incredible rate known as inflation , in which space expands
faster than the speed of Light.
-​ The American Astronomer Edwin Hubble ( in 1925 ) was the first to prove that
the universe is Expanding.
-​ In 1998 , the Hubble Space telescope found that the Expansion is not slowing
down but accelerating by some unknown force, Later this force named as Dark
Energy
-​ Dark Matter - Unseen matter affecting galaxy rotations and mass distribution
-​ Dark Energy - Mysterious force driving accelerated expansions of the Universe
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-​ Quasars - Extremely bright and distant celestial objects , powered by

Supermassive Black Holes

GALAXIES
-​ Galaxy - A huge mass of Stars , Nebula and InterStellar material - Stars held
together in a galaxy by its own gravitational field.
-​ Our Galaxy - The Milky Way Galaxy
-​ Nearest galaxy to Milky Way -” Andromeda Galaxy “
-​ Smallest May contain - 100000 Stars while the largest may contain up to 3000
Billion Stars
-​ Galaxies are the major building blocks of the Universe
There are 2 Types of galaxies
1.​ Regular Galaxies
-​ Spiral Galaxies - Milky Way , Andromeda. They have Spiral Arms about
1/4th of the galaxies have Curved Spiral Arm - Old stars in Centre and
young in Arms
-​ Elliptical Galaxies - Biggest and Brightest. 2/3rd of the galaxies are
elliptical , Generally smaller than Spiral galaxies
-​ Lenticular Galaxies - They have a bulge in Centre and a Dics Similar to
Spiral Galaxies
2.​ Irregular Galaxies - It comprises about 1/10th of the all galaxies.
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MILKY WAY

-​ Flat Disc shape with centre bulge

-​ Diameter - 100 Thousand Light Years
-​ We don't know how far the sun is from the Centre of Milky Way - 33000 Light
Years Approx
-​ Light Year - 9460 Billion Km
-​ Solar System Length - 12 Light year - 13 Billion Km
-​ Inner Stars travel faster than the outer
-​ Sun revolve around the Centre in 220 Million years

Nebula - A cloud of dust and gas inside a galaxy.

PLANETS AND SUN

1.​ SUN
-​ Only star in our solar system
-​ Contain 99% of the mass of Solar System
-​ 8.20 Light minutes taken by light to reach Earth’s Atmosphere
-​ Solar Cycle - A cycle of 11 years where the sun's activity Varies
-​ Fusion Process - Hydrogen atoms fuse to form Helium , releasing
energy.
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-​ Granules - Small convective cells on Sun's Surface

-​ Surface Temperature at Surface - 5500 Celcius
-​ Center - 15.7 Million K
-​ Mission - Aditya L1
-​ Made up of Hydrogen ( 73%) and Helium ( 25 % )

2.​ MERCURY
-​ Smallest planet in the Solar system
-​ No Satellite
-​ Closest ( 36 Millions miles ) to Sun
-​ 88 Days revolution - Shortest time to revolve around the Sun
-​ No atmosphere

3.​ VENUS
-​ Hottest planet of solar system because of CO2 - Has atmosphere so trap
the Sun’s heat
-​ Also known as Lucifer - Light Bringer
-​ No Satellite
-​ Earth's Twin Sister - Because of Size and Shape
-​ Thick clouds of Sulphuric Acids ( H2SO4 )
-​ Brightest planet
-​ Known as Evening / Morning Star - Can be seen with open eyes during
Evening and Morning
-​ Slowest Rotation - 243 days
-​ One of the two planet which Rotate clockwise

4.​ EARTH
-​ Only planet to which support life as far as we know
-​ Earth's magnetic field - Generated by Liquid iron in the outer core ,
protects from Solar radiation
-​ Highest Density
-​ Satellite Moon ( Revolves Eastward once in 27.3 Days )
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5.​ MOON
-​ Only One side of moon is visible to us ( 60% of Moon )
-​ Other side Known as - South Pole , Far Side of the Moon - “
ChandraYaan Mission “
-​ Lander name in Mission - “Vikram” - Vikram Sarabhai
-​ Rover name In Mission - “Pragyan”
-​ Point where landed - “Shiv Shakti Point “
-​ The day it landed we celebrated the Space day on the same day - August
23rd
-​ Highest Point - Mount Leibenits

6.​ MARS
-​ It has Dark patches on it
-​ Olympus Mons - Largest volcano and the tallest mountain in the solar
system lies on Mars
-​ 2 Natural Moons - Phobos and Deimos
-​ It possesses an Atmosphere of mostly carbon Dioxide
-​ Its red colour comes from Iron Oxide ( Rust ) in its soil.

7.​ JUPITER
-​ Largest planet in Solar System
-​ Shortest rotation - 9 Hour 55 Min
-​ Composed of Hydrogen , Helium and Methane
-​ Great red spot - A giant storm in the solar system exists on this planet
-​ Jupiter Magnetic field id the strongest in the Solar system
-​ It has 95 Satellite - Europa , Ganymede ( Largest Moon of Solar system )
-​ Temperature - 130 Celsius

8.​ SATURN
-​ Discovered by Galellio Galeli
-​ Lightest Planet
-​ Brightest rings
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-​ Rings discovered By Christian Hyygens

-​ Space between the rings discovered by - Cassini
-​ Can float on water
-​ 2nd Largest planet in Solar System
-​ Largest Moon of Saturn - Titan ( Considered that life can possible )
-​ Highest Number of Moons - 83
-​ Revolution 29.5 Earth Year
-​ Made up of Hydrogen and Helium

9.​ URANUS
-​ Known as Twins of outer System
-​ Bluish Green - Because Methane Gas ( Mars Gas )
-​ Discovered by William Herschel in 1781
-​ Known as Ice Giant
-​ Rotate Clockwise
-​ Moons - 27 ( Miranda , Ariel and Umbrief )
-​ 4 times large and 15 Times heavy
-​ Rolling planet - Due to its Tilt ( 98 Degree )
-​ Coldest planet of solar system

10.​ NEPTUNE
-​ Farthest planet from the Sun
-​ Discovered by Johan Galle and Urbain Le Varrier in 1846
-​ 2 Satellite
-​ 16 Hour days
-​ Windiest Planet - Speed up to 2100 km/hr
-​ Coldest planet recorded which is -224 Celsius
-​ 14 Satellite - Triton
-​ Slowest revolution - 165 Earth’s Years
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DWARF PLANET
1.​ PLUTO
-​ Largest dwarf planet
-​ Total 5 Satellite
-​ Largest Satellite - Charon
-​ Revolution - 244 Years
-​ Remove from the Planets list in 2006 because of Unfilled Condition to being a
Planet
1.​ Should have a good spherical shape
2.​ Should revolve around the Sun
3.​ Have to clear side the objects coming it its path - Did Not fulfill this
condition
2.​ ERIS
-​ 2nd Largest dwarf Planet
-​ Located in Kuiper Belt ( After Neptune )
3.​ HAUMEA - Located in Kuiper Belt ( After Neptune )
4.​ MAKEMAKE - Located in Kuiper Belt ( After Neptune )
5.​ CERES
-​ Located in Asteroid Belt
-​ Closest Dwarf planet to Earth

CELESTIAL BODIES
There are two types of Celestial Bodies -

1.​ Luminous - Which have their own Light - Star

2.​ Non - Luminous - Which don’t have their own light - Asteroid , Meteorite ,
Meteor , Meteorite , Comet , Moon

COMET

-​ Made up of Rock , Dust , Ice and Gas

-​ Start melting when you come closer to the Sun.
-​ Leave a tail behind it so known as “ Puchal Tara “ in Hindi
-​ Famous Comet - Helley's Comet - Last seen in 1986 , Later will be seen in 2061 -
Every 76 Year
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-​ Shoemaker - Levy 9 - A comet that collided with Jupiter in 1994

ASTEROID

-​ Revolve like planets around the Sun

-​ Not in spherical Shape - Irregular in shape
-​ Trojans and Greeks - Asteroids sharing Jupiter's orbit , located at lagrange Points
-​ Bigger in Size

METROID

-​ Smaller in Size
-​ Start burning in Earth’s Atmosphere
-​ Known as “Shooting Star “
-​ Many metroid falling together - Metroid Shower

METEORITE

-​ Which don’t burn in Earth’s Atmosphere

-​ Came to Earth Surface

MISSION AND SPACE PROGRAM

1.​ Parker Solar Probe ( USA ) - Closest spacecraft to Study the Sun
2.​ Voyager 1 and 2 - First Human -made objects to leave the Solar system , Date - 5
September 1977 , August 20 1977
3.​ James Webb Space Telescope - Successor to Hubble , Studies exoplanets and deep
Space
4.​ NASA's Artemis Program - Aims to send Humans back to Moon

Chandrayaan-3: India's Historic Moon Mission

Launch Date: 14 July 2023​

Landing Date: 23 August 2023​
Objective: Demonstrate soft landing and rover mobility on the Moon’s South Pole.​
Launch Vehicle: GSLV Mk III (LVM-3)​
Mission Cost: Approx. ₹615 Crore

Key Components:

1.​ Vikram Lander: Successfully landed near the Moon’s South Pole.
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2.​ Pragyan Rover: Explored the Moon’s surface and conducted scientific experiments.
3.​ Propulsion Module: Carried the lander and helped in reaching lunar orbit.

Major Discoveries & Achievements:

●​ First country to land near the Moon’s South Pole.

●​ Detected elements like Sulphur, Aluminium, Iron, Calcium, and Titanium.
●​ Confirmed water ice presence in polar regions.
●​ Studied Moonquakes (Lunar Seismic Activity).
●​ Demonstrated India’s advanced space technology and engineering skills.

Apollo 11: NASA's First Moon Mission

●​ Mission Name: Apollo 11

●​ Launch Date: July 16, 1969
●​ Landing on Moon: July 20, 1969
●​ Return to Earth: July 24, 1969
●​ Launch Vehicle: Saturn V
●​ Mission Duration: 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds

Astronauts on Apollo 11:

1.​ Neil Armstrong (Commander) – First human to walk on the Moon

2.​ Buzz Aldrin (Lunar Module Pilot) – Second person to walk on the Moon
3.​ Michael Collins (Command Module Pilot) – Stayed in lunar orbit

Key Events:

●​ Landing Site: Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis)

●​ First Moonwalk: July 20, 1969, at 02:56 UTC
●​ Neil Armstrong's Words: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for
mankind."
●​ Flag Planted: USA flag was placed on the Moon
●​ Collected Samples: 21.5 kg of lunar soil and rocks
●​ Left Behind: A plaque saying, "We came in peace for all mankind," and scientific
instruments

Return to Earth: - The astronauts safely splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969,
and were recovered by the USS Hornet.
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PYQS
1.​ In 1905 , who concluded with Thomas Chamberlain that the Planets of the Solar System
originated from an Encounter between the Sun and Another star - Forest Moulton
2.​ Which Dwarf Planet orbits the Sun 310 Years - MakeMake
3.​ The Size of Earth and Venus is almost Similar
4.​ Don’t have ring - Venus
5.​ Pluto Oblong orbit overlaps the orbit of Neptune
6.​ Fastest orbital system - Mercury
7.​ 16 Hour day - Neptune
8.​ Widely Accepted model - Nebular Hypothesis
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TOPIC -2 LATITUDE -
LONGITUDE , ROTATION -
REVOLUTION
-​ Age of Earth - 4.5 Billion Years ago ( Radioactive dating )

SHAPE OF EARTH

-​ Shape of Earth - Geoid , Oblate Spheroid

-​ Earth is Bulge in the Center
-​ Flat at Poles
-​ Radius of Earth - Equatorial Radius > Polar Radius - 6378.13 KM
-​ Equatorial Speed > Polar Speed - Rotation
-​ Circumference of Earth - 24,901 Miles ( 40,075 Km )

REASON OF BULGE OF EARTH

-​ Centrifugal Force - Outer Force ( Not real force ) - Same Magnitude as Centripetal
Force
-​ Centripetal Force -Towards the Center - Inner Force

ROTATION

-​ Earth revolving on its axis

-​ This causes day and Night
-​ Time taken 23 Hour 56 Minutes 4 Second

INCLINATION OF EARTH’S AXIS

-​ Tilt on its axis - 23.4 Degree

-​ Orbital Tilt - 66.6 Degree

LATITUDES

-​ Imaginary horizontal Lines on the Globe that run from East to West
-​ Angular Distances of a place from the Equator
-​ Same Distances between latitudes
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-​ 1 Degree of Latitude is approx equal to 111 KM

-​ Total Latitudes - 181
-​ Latitudinal Circles - 179 ( Just a Point will remain in North Pole and South Pole )

IMPORTANT LATITUDE

-​ Equator - dividing Earth into 2 Equal parts

-​ Tropic of Cancer - 23½ degree - No sun’s rays go upper than that
-​ Tropic of Capricorn - 23 ½ degree - No sun’s rays go down than this
-​ Arctic Circle - 66 ½ Degree
-​ Antarctic Circle - 66 ½ Degree
-​ Largest latitude - Equator
-​ Smallest latitude - Poles ( North And South )
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ZONES OF EARTH

LATITUDE FUNCTIONS

-​ Used in Climatology
-​ Temperature Zones , Wind
-​ Responsible for Pressure System
-​ Planetary Winds System
-​ Location of A place

LONGITUDES

-​ Imaginary vertical lines over the globe that run from North to South
-​ Angular Distance of a Place from Prime Meridian
-​ Distances from each Longitudes varies from poles towards Equator
-​ Least Distance at poles and maximum distance at Equator - 111.32 Km
-​ Prime Meridian - 0 Degree Longitude ( GREENWICH MEAN TIME ) - Laboratory
in England London
-​ Total Longitudes - 360

LONGITUDES - PRIME MERIDIAN

-​ It passes through Greenwich in London - Countries - 8

-​ France
-​ Mali , Algeria , Spain
-​ Burkina Faso , Togo ,Ghana

TRICK - BSF GAME IN TOGO KINGDOM

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CONCEPT OF LONGITUDES USED IN TIME

-​ Earth rotates 360 Degree in 24 Hours

-​ Distance rotated by Earth in 1 Hour = 360/12 = 15 Degree
-​ Time taken in each 1 degree = 60/15 - 4 Minutes
-​ Moving each 15 Degree towards East of Prime Meridian will increase the time
by 1 Hour
-​ Moving each 15 Degree towards West of Prime Meridian will decrease the time
by 1 Hour
-​ 1 Hour - 15 Degree
-​ Indian Standard Time - 82 ½ Degree East ( + 5 Hour 30 Minutes )
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Question - If it is 12 Noon at 60 Degree East Longitude , then explain what would be

the time at 30 Degree East Longitude

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

-​ It passes through - The Pacific ocean , Arctic ocean , Antarctica , Fiji, tonga and other
islands
-​ It is a Zig Zag line
-​ If you West to East - You will Gain A day ( Date loss )
-​ Vice - versa in East to west
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CONCEPT OF GREAT CIRCLE

-​ Divide Earth into two equal parts

-​ It is the Shortest distance between two Points
-​ All Longitudes are Great Circle
-​ There are total 181 Great Circles ( latitudes + Longitudes )
-​ But there is only 1 Latitude is Great Circle - Equator
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HEMISPHERE

-​ Equal division of Earth into 2 Parts

-​ Equator divides the Globe horizontally into 2 Equal parts - Northern and
Southern Hemisphere
-​ Prime meridian and International Date Line divided globe vertically - Eastern
and Western hemisphere

REVOLUTION
-​ Earth moving around the Sun in an Elliptical Orbit known as REVOLUTION
-​ Revolution causes Seasons on Earth
-​ Time taken for 1 Revolution - 365 Days 6 Hours and 9 Minutes
-​ Leap years cause because of these - 6 Hour extra in every year
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SOLSTICE AND EQUINOX

-​ Summer Solstice - 21 June - Direct rays of Sun on Tropic of Cancer - , Tropic of

Cancer and Arctic Circle experience more than 12 Hours of Sunlight
-​ Winter Solstice - 22 December - Direct rays of Sun on Tropic of Capricorn
-​ Spring Equinox -21 March - Vernal Equinox ( Equal Days and Nights on Entire Earth
)
-​ Autumn Equinox - 23 September - Equal Days and Nights on Entire Earth

Frigid Zone( Polar Region ) - 6 Months Day and 6 Months Night - Beyond 66 ½

DISTANCE FROM THE SUN

-​ Sun is not at the exact Centre

-​ Earth Closest to Sun - Perihelion (3 January ) - 147.1 Million Km
-​ Earth farthest to Sun - Aphelion ( 4 July ) - 152.1 Million Km

DISTANCE FROM THE MOON

-​ Perigee - Moon Nearest to Earth

-​ Apogee - Moon farthest to Earth
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ECLIPSE

Solar Eclipse

-​ Moon between Earth and Sun

-​ New Moon - Amavasya
-​ Festival - Diwali
-​ Umbra - Dark Shadow
-​ Penumbral - Lighter Shadow
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Lunar Eclipse

-​ Earth between Sun and Moon

-​ Full Moon - Purnima
-​ Mostly Festivals celebrated in this time - Holi , Rakshabandhan

Types of Moon

1.​ Super Moon - Perigee Situation

2.​ Blood Moon - Red Moon ( Scattering of Light )
3.​ Blue Moon - No Blue Colour - 2 Full Moon in a Month

TIDES

-​ Closest celestial body to the Earth - Moon - Gravitational Pull

-​ Rise and Fall in sea Water levels
-​ High Tide - Moon graviton pull the towards it - We can see the tides in opposite
direction of Earth too ( Centrifugal Force )
-​ Low Tide - Water goes to make high tides results in Making low tides
-​ Moon is moving around the Earth because of Earth Gravitational Pull
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-​ Spring Tide -a tide just after a new or full moon, when there is the greatest difference
between high and low water , High tides + Sun gravitational Pull Low Tide get much
lower
-​ Neap Tide - When they make a Right angel

-​ Syzygy - Straight Line

-​ Flood - Water going upwards ( Low to High )
-​ Ebb - Water going from high to low
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TOPIC - 3 PLATE TECTONIC

AND EARTH INTERIOR
Father of Geology - James Hettor

HOW WE GOT TO KNOW ABOUT EARTH’S INTERIOR ?

There are two types of Sources -

1.​ Direct Sources

-​ Volcanoes
-​ Rocks
2.​ Indirect Sources
-​ Meteorites
-​ Gravity
-​ Magnetic field
-​ Earthquakes

VOLCANO

-​ Inside the Earth - Magma

-​ Outside the Earth - Lava

ROCKS

-​ By Mining

METEORITES

-​ Made up of same material as Earth made up of

GRAVITY

-​ This made the shape of Earth - Geoid

-​ Gravity Anomaly
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INTERIOR OF EARTH

Earth Interior is Divided into 3 Layers

1.​ CRUST ( OUTER LAYER )

-​ Uppermost layer of the Earth extending up to 100 Km in Depth
-​ Divided into - Outer and Inner Crust
-​ Made up of Silica + Aluminium

Types of Crust

1.​ Continental Crust

-​ Thicker than Oceanic Crust
-​ Made up of Granitic rocks ( Rich in Silica and Aluminium )
-​ 35 - 40 Km , 70 Km in Mountains regions
2.​ Oceanic Crust
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-​ Thicker and denser than Continental Crust

-​ Made up of Basaltic rocks ( Rich in Silica and Magnesium ) -
SIMA Composition
-​ Forms the Ocean Floors

Composition of Earth’s Crust

1.​ Oxygen - 46.6%

2.​ Silicon - 27.7%
3.​ Aluminium - 8.1% - Abundant Metal before Iron

2.​MANTLE ( MIDDLE LAYER )

-​ Located below the Crust
-​ Extending from 100 - 2900 Km in depth
-​ Makes up 84% of Earth’s total Volume
-​ Temperature increase with depth due to High pressure
-​ Made up of - Silicon and Magnesium

Upper Mantle

-​ It is Sub- Divided into 2 parts

1.​ Upper Mantle Solid Part
2.​ Asthenosphere -
-​ A Semi - Molten layer , acting as Weak Zone
-​ It is the Source of Magma that causes Volcanic eruptions
-​ It is responsible for plate tectonics and convection currents

Lower mantle

-​ Extends from 700 - 2900 Km

-​ More rigid than the Asthenosphere but still capable of slow movements
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3.​CORE ( INNER LAYER )

-​ Extends from 2900 Km to the Earth's Center ( 6371 Km )
-​ Composed mainly of Iron ( Fe) and Nickel ( Ni) forming the NIFE
layer
-​ It generates the Earth’s Magnetic field

Outer Core

-​ Liquid in Nature
-​ Responsible for Generating Earth’s Magnetic field Due to Convection currents of
Molten Iron - Van Allen Belt
-​ Convection Currents - Warm Air Goes up and Cool Air came down

Inner Core

-​ Solid due to Extreme pressure

-​ Composed Mainly of Iron and Nickel

LITHOSPHERE

-​ The Lithosphere includes the crust and the Upper Solid part of the Mantle
-​ Crust + Upper Solid part of Mantle
-​ Thickness - up to 200 Km
-​ It is Broken into tectonic Plates , which move due to Convection currents in the
Asthenosphere

COMPOSITION

1.​ BY MASS
-​ Crust - 1%
-​ Mantle - 84%
-​ Core - 15%
2.​ BY VOLUME
-​ Crust - less than 1% or 1%
-​ Mantle - 68%
-​ Core - 31%
 31 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

DISCONTINUITY

Trick - Koi mujhe Red Gulab La do

PLATE TECTONIC
 32 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ This theory is given by - Macnzie and Paskes

Divided into 2 Types

1.​ Major - 7 Plates ( North America Plate , Eurasian Plate , Pacific Plate,
South American plate , African Plate , Antarctic Plate , Australian
Plate )
2.​ Minor - Roughly 5( Caribbeana , Indian )

-​ These red symbols indicate where these plates are moving

Types of Margins

1.​ Divergent - Moving Farther, Opposite - New plates will form because Magma comes to
ground.
2.​ Seduction - The bigger one goes down - Crust destroyed by Making - Cause Volcano
and form the Plate again
3.​ Transform - Nothing happens, Earthquakes occur

EARTHQUAKE

-​ Transform Fault - Break in Rock - High force will let them go in sudden impact by
releasing energy
-​ Shaking of Earth is called Earthquake
 33 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ Energy released in the form of Waves along the faultline

-​ These waves Travel in all directions
-​ The first point of Outer Earth they reach - Epicenter
-​ Focus - Hypocenter
-​ Epicenter is just above the Focus

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

There are 2 types of Waves

Body Waves - When waves came out of focus but didn't touch the rock

1.​ P Waves
-​ These Waves Vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation of Waves.
-​ This create - Compression and Rarefaction
-​ Squeeze and Stretch Earth Surface
-​ Can travel in all 3 Medium - Solid >Liquid>Gas
-​ Resembles Sound Waves
-​ 1st to reach - First recorded in Seismograph
 34 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

2.​ S Waves
-​ These Waves Vibrate perpendicular l to the direction of propagation of
Waves.
-​ Create Crust and Trough
-​ Can travel only through Solids

Surface Waves- When Waves touch the [Link] changed to Surface Waves

1.​ L Waves -
-​ AKA Love Waves , Relay Wave
-​ These Waves Vibrate perpendicular l to the direction of propagation of
Waves.
-​ Create Crust and Trough
-​ Most destructive

SHADOW ZONE OF SEISMIC WAVES

-​ S Wave shadow zone is 40% of Earth's surface

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE

-​ Waves are measured in Seismograph

-​ Richter Scale - Magnitude of Earthquake , Limitless Scale
-​ Mercalli Scale - Intensity of Earthquake , 1-12
 35 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

-​ Tsunami - When Hypocenter is Under the ocean , It's a Japanese term Which means
Harbour Waves
-​ Soil liquefaction - Soil Gets weak
-​ Landslide
-​ Avalanche - Mountains region , Glaciers
-​ Floods
-​ Fires

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE

1.​ Collapse Earthquake - Underground Mines - When series of Mines collapsed

together
2.​ Volcanic Earthquake - Because of Volcanic Activity
3.​ Tectonic Earthquake - Because of Slides in Tectonic plates
4.​ Reservoir Earthquake -When dams and big projects are made , Kohina Dam
5.​ Explosion Earthquake - Explosion for mining for important Minerals
-​ Human induced Earthquake , Artificial, Anthropentic

INDIA SEISMIC ZONES

 36 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

RING OF FIRE

-​ Areas which are more prone to Volcanic Activity and Earthquake in Pacific ocean
-​ Aka - Pacific Ring of Fire , Circumference Pacific Belt
-​ 75% of Earth's Volcano are here
-​ 90% of Earth Earthquake occur here
 37 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPIC - 4 ROCKS ,
CONTINENTS AND OCEANS
Study of rocks - Petrology

Age can be find by - Carbon Dating

TYPES OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
-​ Ignis ( Latin Word ) - This means “ Fire “
-​ Magma Come outside from the Volcano and spread outside - After some time
it solidifies called - Extrusive Igneous Rocks
-​ Some rocks are made under the Crustal surface - Intrusive igneous
Rocks ( Pluto )
-​ If Magma froze inside its chamber - Batholith
-​ Lopolith - Saucer shape , Concave Body
-​ Faecolith - Anticline and Syncline made - Wavy mass of rocks
-​ Sil - Horizontal rock
-​ Dike - Vertical rock
-​ Laccolith - Mini batholith - Go up and then frozen , Connected by a Pipe
-​ Example of Igneous Rocks - Gabbro , Granite , Basalt < Pumice , Pegmatite

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
-​ Made with Sediments
-​ Denudational Agent - Fragments - transportation by Exogenous Agents - Through
compaction- They form a rock
-​ Compaction - Lithification
 38 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Can be Formed in 3 Ways -

1.​ Mechanically Formed - Limestone , Sandstone , Shale , Conglomerate

2.​ Chemically Formed - Limestone , Chret , Halite , Potash
3.​ Organically Formed - Limestone , Sandstone , Chalk , Coal

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
-​ Metamorphosis - “ Change in form “ - PVT Changes ( Pressure , Volume and
Temperature )
-​ Example - Marble , Gneiss , Quartzite , Slate , Schist
-​ In Metamorphic rocks - Sometimes lines can be seen called - Lineation or Foliation
-​ Alternate Light and Dark shades - Banding

DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM

-​ Metamorphic rocks formed without chemical change is called as Dynamic

Metamorphism
-​ Formed Mechanically
-​ Usually form in Low Temperature and High pressure
-​ Two types -
1.​ Contact Metamorphism
2.​ Regional Metamorphism - Sudden change in High Pressure

THERMAL METAMORPHISM

-​ The materials of rocks chemically alter and recrystallize due to thermal Metamorphism

-​ Taj Mahal - Made up of Marble ( Metamorphic Rocks )

-​ Red Fort - Red Sandstone ( Sedimentary Rocks )
 39 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

ROCK CYCLE

-​ Volcano - Magma came outside - Solidifies - Igneous rock made - Denudational Agent -
weathering and Erosion - Compaction - Sedimentary rock will form - PVT changes -
Metamorphic rocks

VOLCANO
-​ There are many things came out from it - Gas , Magma , Pyroclastic Debris , Sulphur
compounds , Nitrogen Compounds
-​ World's Highest Volcano - Ojas Del Salado ( Chile - Argentina border )
-​ High Volcanic Activity - Pacific Ring of fire
-​ Lighthouse of Mediterranean - Mount Stromboli ( Europe - Africa Center )
 40 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

Types of Volcanoes -

1.​ Cinder cone - Cone - Shaped

2.​ Shield - Basaltic lava - Non Viscous , Example - Hawai
3.​ Composite - Cooler , Viscous ( Made With many things ) - Steep Volcano - Example -
India’s Deccan Plateau
4.​ Caldera - Most Explosive - It collapses on itself - Flood Basalt Province - High;ly fluid

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

220 Million Years Ago

-​ Pangea - Landmass ( All Continents connected )

-​ Panthalassa - Water Surrounding the Pangea

150 Million Years Ago

-​ They start going far by each other

-​ Laurasia - Upper part ( North America and Eurasia )
-​ Gondwana - Lower part of land ( South America , Africa , Australia , Antarctica , India )

Now

-​ All 7 continent forms

 41 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ This theory is given by - Alfard Wegner ( German Geographist ) in 1912

-​ Abraham Ortelius - 1st time - He gave this Concept and predict it for the first time
-​ Zig Saw Fit
-​ Africa ( Ghana ) - Veins of Gold found - But Gold rock didn't seen here
-​ Planetology - Study of Fossils

EVIDENCES FOR CDT

-​ Apparent aff

FORCE FOR DRIFTING

1.​ Polar Fleeing force

2.​ Tidal Force - Gravitational Pull , Centrifugal Force
-​ Not accepted by many

ARTHUR HOLMES

-​ Convection currents in magma are generated due to the heat produced by the decay of
radioactive elements, leading to thermal variations within the Earth's mantle.

SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY

-​ First given by Harry Hess in 1961

-​ Sea rocks are younger than Continents

Mid - Oceanic Ridge

-​ Formed because of Divergent Plate Boundary

-​ A series of Small mountains
 42 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

OCEAN - RELIEF FEATURE

Ocean Relief feature can be divided into -

MAJOR

1.​ Continental Shelf

-​ Staring of Sea Bed
-​ Slope 1 Degree or Less
-​ Narrow and Wide
-​ Average - 70 -80 Km
-​ Siberian - Widest - 120 Km
-​ South America West Coast - 50 Km
-​ Rich source of Fossil fuels
2.​ Continental Slope - A Sudden slope
3.​ Continental Rise - A little Rise
4.​ Deep Sea Plane / Abyssal Plane - No rise and fall - Plain

MINOR

1.​ Sea Mount

2.​ Giot - It is a Flat topped Shaped Sea Mount
3.​ Mid - Ocean Ridge
4.​ Trenches - Mariana Trench ( Pacific Ocean - challengers Deep )
5.​ Coral
 43 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ Can’t exist alone

-​ Work with Zooxanthellae - Help in making food
-​ Need Sunlight for Survival ( Clear Water )
-​ Temperature - 30 - 35 Degree celsius
-​ Found in Saline Water
-​ Exoskeleton - Made up of calcium carbonate
-​ Exist in colony
-​ Coral chain - Australia - Known as Great Barrier Reef
6.​ Atoll
-​ Sea Mount - Removed or made Giot with time
-​ Corals need someone to attach with
-​ Mountain gone and A Circle formed with corals all side known as Atoll

Coral Bleaching

-​ Very useful for Environment

-​ Cause because of Colour fading
1.​ Global warming
2.​ Temperature rise
3.​ Use of Excessive Fossils Fuels
-​ CO2 dissolve in water and form chronomatic Acid - Capacity of Solubility increase with
high temperature
-​ This is called Ocean Acidification - Destroying Colar
 44 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPIC 5 - GEOMORPHOLOGY
AND LANDFORMS
GEOMORPHIC PROCESS
Endogenic Process - Build , Elevate the things - Himalayas ( Endogenic > Exogenic )

-​ Effects of Endogenic forces

1.​ Diastrophism
-​ Orogenic Process ( Build the Mountains )
-​ Epeirogenic - uplifting parts of Earth’s Crust
-​ Earthquake
-​ Plate tectonic
2.​ Volcanism

ENERGY BEHIND ENDOGENIC FORCES

-​ Convection currents developing inside Asthenosphere - Theory by Arther Holmes

-​ Current develop because of radioactive Decay
1.​ Radioactivity
2.​ Residual Heat ( Pre - Module Heat ) - heat present on Earth before its formation
3.​ Rotational and Tidal frictions - Minimal role

Exogenic Process - Destroy or wear and tear the things ( Relief Features ) - Aravali (
Exogenic > Endogenic )

Exogenic Agents - Which help in wear and Tear ( Mind , Glacier Moving , river water ) - They
have a source of Energy “ Sun” - Directly or Indirectly related to Sun

Denudational Process

1.​ Weathering - Driving Force - Molecular Stress or Chemical Actions

2.​ Mass movements - Driving Force - Gravitational Force
3.​ Erosion/ Transportation - Driving Force - Kinetic Energy
 45 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

WEATHERING

-​ Weathering is In - Situ Process ( Don't move from place )

Types of Weathering

1.​ Chemical Weathering - Subtypes - Solution , Carbonation , Oxidation

2.​ Physical Weathering - Stress on rock ( Gravity ) , Change in Temperature ,
Pressure
3.​ Biological Weathering - Earthworms , Rodent ,

Effects of Weathering

-​ Exfoliation - Expansion and Contraction in rocks because of temperature change -

Upper Layer breakdown and new layers came out

MASS MOVEMENT

-​ Weathering is not a Pre - Requestive for Mass Movement

-​ It move because of Gravitational force ( Main Driving force )

There are 2 Types of Mass Movement

1.​ Rapid Movement

-​ Landslide - Deforestation ( Anthro Phonics Reason )
-​ Avalanche
-​ Earthflow
-​ Mudflow
2.​ Slow Movement
-​ Creep - Slow mass movement ( Poles )
-​ Solifluction - Temperate Areas

LANDFORMS DUE TO VARIOUS AGENTS

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RIVER LANDFORMS ( Fluvial Landforms )

-​ We divide this Stage in 3 Ages

YOUTHFUL STAGE ( UPPER COURSE )

●​ The youthful stage is the first stage of a river, occurring close to its source (like
glaciers, mountains, or springs).
●​ It is characterized by steep gradients, high velocity, and strong erosive power.
●​ The primary erosion processes include vertical erosion, leading to the formation
of deep valleys and other landforms.

Important Erosional Landforms in the Youthful Stage

 47 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

1.​ V-Shaped Valley

-​ Formed by downcutting erosion by rivers

-​ The valley sides are steep, resembling the letter 'V'.
-​ Example: Alaknanda River (Himalayas)

1.​ Gorges

-​ Narrow, deep valleys with almost vertical walls.

-​ Formed in regions with hard rock layers where the river cuts downward
intensely.
-​ Example: Indus Gorge near Nanga Parbat
 48 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

2.​ Canyons

-​ A wider and deeper version of a gorge.

-​ Formed in arid regions with horizontal rock strata.
-​ Example: Grand Canyon (Colorado River, USA)

3.​ Waterfalls

-​ Occur where there is a sudden drop in elevation due to resistant rock layers.
-​ Example: Jog Falls (Sharavati River, Karnataka)
 49 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

4.​ Entrenched Meanders

-​ Occur when a river maintains its meandering course while cutting down
into the landscape.
-​ Formed due to upliftment of land or base-level changes
-​ Example: Chambal River Meanders (Madhya Pradesh & Rajasthan)

5.​ River Terraces

-​ Step-like landforms along valley sides, indicating past river levels.

-​ Formed due to fluctuations in river discharge, climate change, or
tectonic uplift.
-​ Example: Narmada River Terraces
 50 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

MATURE STAGE ( UPPER COURSE )

Characteristics:

●​ The river enters gentler slopes, reducing its velocity.

●​ It widens and carries a higher sediment load.
●​ Lateral erosion (sideways cutting) dominates over vertical erosion.
●​ The river starts meandering as it encounters obstacles and softer rocks.

Major Landforms:

1.​ Meanders

-​ Large bends in the river are caused by erosion on the outer banks and
deposition on the inner banks.
-​ Example: Ganga River near Varanasi
 51 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

2.​ Oxbow Lakes

-​ Formed when a meander loop is cut off due to deposition, leaving a

crescent-shaped lake.
-​ Example: Yamuna River near Allahabad

3.​ Floodplains

-​ Low-lying areas formed by repeated flooding and sediment deposition.

-​ Example: Indo-Gangetic Plains
 52 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

4.​ Natural Levees

-​ Raised river banks formed due to deposition of heavy sediments during

floods.
-​ Example: Brahmaputra River levees in Assam

OLD STAGE ( LOWER COURSE )

Characteristics:

●​ The river reaches flat, low-lying areas near its mouth.

●​ Deposition dominates over erosion as velocity decreases.
●​ The river becomes widest and slowest, carrying fine sediments like silt and clay.
●​ High risk of flooding due to low gradient and sediment buildup.

Major Landforms:
 53 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

1.​ Deltas

-​ Formed at the river’s mouth due to sediment deposition in calm waters.

-​ Types: Arcuate (Ganga-Brahmaputra), Bird’s Foot (Mississippi),
Estuarine (Narmada)

2.​ Distributaries

-​ Smaller channels branching from the main river in delta regions.

-​ Example: Hooghly and Padma Rivers (Distributaries of
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta)
 54 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

3.​ Estuaries

-​ Formed where the river meets the sea with strong tides and currents
removing sediments.
-​ Example: Narmada and Tapi Estuaries

4.​ Back Swamps

-​ Low-lying areas behind natural levees, often turning into wetlands.

-​ Example: Sundarbans (formed due to Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
sedimentation)
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GLACIAL LANDFORMS

Erosional Landforms (Glacial)

1.​ Cirque – A bowl-shaped depression formed by glacial erosion, often the starting point
of a glacier.
2.​ Arete – A sharp, narrow ridge between two cirques, formed by glacial erosion.
3.​ Horn – A pointed mountain peak formed by the erosion of multiple cirques.
4.​ Aerated Ridge – Not a standard glacial landform (possibly a misinterpretation of
Arete).

Depositional Landforms (Glacial)

5.​ Esker – A long, winding ridge of sand and gravel deposited by meltwater streams within
or under glaciers.
6.​ Drumlin – An oval-shaped hill of glacial till, indicating the direction of glacier
movement.
7.​ Moraines – Accumulations of glacial debris (till) forming ridges or layers. Important.
8.​ Outwash Plains – Broad, flat areas of sorted sediments deposited by glacial

Fjord of– A deep, narrow, and elongated sea inlet formed by glacial erosion, with steep sides
, Sea Water entering into Glacial valley
 56 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

WIND ( Aeolian landforms )

-​ Mostly form in Desert with Sand

Important Aeolian (Wind-Formed) Landforms for SSC

Erosional Landforms

1.​ Yardang – Streamlined rock ridges shaped by wind erosion.

2.​ Mushroom Rock – A rock with a narrow base and a wider top due to wind abrasion.
3.​ Zeugen – Hard rock ridges with soft rock eroded away, formed by wind abrasion.
4.​ Pediplain – A nearly level desert surface formed by prolonged erosion.

Depositional Landforms

1.​ Sand Dunes – Hills of sand formed by wind deposition.

2.​ Loess – Fine, wind-blown silt deposits, forming fertile plains.
3.​ Barchan Dunes – Crescent-shaped sand dunes with horns pointing downwind.
4.​ Seif Dunes – Long, narrow dunes aligned with wind direction.
5.​ Playas – Shallow desert basins that collect water but dry up quickly, leaving salt
deposits.
 57 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

SEA WAVES ( Coastal Landforms )

Erosional Landforms (Formed by Wave Action)

1.​ Sea Cliffs – Steep rock faces formed by wave erosion at the coastline.
2.​ Wave-Cut Platform – A flat surface at the base of a sea cliff, created as waves erode
the cliff.
3.​ Sea Caves – Hollow formations in coastal rocks due to continuous wave action.
4.​ Sea Arch – A natural arch formed when sea caves on opposite sides of a headland meet.
5.​ Sea Stack – An isolated rock pillar left standing after the collapse of a sea arch.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by Wave Deposition)

6.​ Beaches – Accumulation of sand, pebbles, or silt along the coast due to wave
deposition.
7.​ Spits – Narrow ridges of sand extending into the sea, formed by longshore drift.
8.​ Bars – Ridges of sand parallel to the coast, sometimes enclosing a lagoon.
9.​ Tombolo – A sandbar that connects an island to the mainland.
10.​Dunes – Sand formations created by wind deposition in deserts and coastal areas.
11.​Barriers – Natural formations like islands, beaches, or reefs that protect coastlines
from erosion and storms.
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GROUND WATER ( Karst Landforms )

"Karst Landforms" - (Landforms formed due to groundwater action on limestone)

Erosional Landforms (Karst)

1.​ Sinkhole – A circular depression formed by the dissolution of limestone by

groundwater. It can collapse suddenly, forming a deep hole. Common in karst landscapes
like the Deccan Plateau.
2.​ Dolines – Larger sinkholes, often circular, formed due to limestone dissolution.
3.​ – Grooved and ridged limestone surfaces due to chemical weathering.
4.​ Uvalas – Large depressions formed by the merging of multiple sinkholes or dolines.
5.​ Limestone Pavements – Flat, exposed limestone surfaces with deep cracks due to
erosion.

Depositional Landforms (Karst)

6.​ Stalactite – A pointed mineral deposit hanging from cave ceilings, formed by the
dripping of mineral-rich water. Composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
(*Mnemonic: "C" for Ceiling)
 59 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

7.​ Stalagmite – A conical mineral deposit rising from the cave floor, formed by the
accumulation of mineral deposits from dripping water. Slower-growing than stalactites.
(*Mnemonic: "G" for Ground)
8.​ Pillar – A column-like structure formed when a stalactite and stalagmite merge. Found
in deep limestone caves, indicating long-term mineral deposition.
 60 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPIC - 6 WATER IN
ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE

-​ It is an envelope of Gases Which consists -

-​ Aerosole
-​ Dust particles
-​ Smoke

EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERE

There are 3 Stages of evolution -

1.​ Primordial Atmosphere - Sun's Solar flares destroy the Old Atmosphere ( which
consist of Hydrogen and Helium Mainly )
2.​ Degassing - Emission of gases from Volcanoes - Very High volcanic Activity when the
Atmosphere making itself
3.​ Modification By Living World - Plants start doing Photosynthese with Gases
 61 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

LAYERS OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

Troposphere - Most Important

-​ We live in this layer

-​ ‘ Trops ‘ - Region of Mixing
-​ All weather Phenomena Occur here
-​ Thickness - 8 - 18 Km ( Varies At Poles And Equator )
-​ Tropopause - Where Troposphere end and new layer start
-​ Equator Temperature - -80 Degree Celcius
 62 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

COMPOSITION OF GASES

Important

-​ Nitrogen - 78%
-​ Oxygen - 21%
-​ Argon - 0.9%
-​ Carbon Dioxide - 0.037%

Question:

-​ Why does temperature decrease as we go up in the troposphere?

Answer:

-​ The temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere because our atmosphere is
primarily heated by terrestrial radiation, not insolation.

Key Concepts:

●​ Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation): This is the sunlight that reaches the
Earth's surface. However, the atmosphere does not absorb much of this energy directly.
 63 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

●​ Terrestrial Radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs solar energy and then re-emits it
as infrared radiation. This radiation heats the lower atmosphere. They Capture
●​ Shortwave radiation (solar radiation) – The atmosphere is transparent to it,
meaning most of it passes through without being absorbed.
-​ Example - Visible Light from Sun , UltraViolet (UV)
●​ Longwave radiation (terrestrial radiation) – The atmosphere is opaque to it,
meaning it absorbs and re-emits much of this radiation, contributing to the greenhouse
effect.
-​ Example - Infrared radiations emitted by Earth's Surface , Heat Radiation gases
like - Co2 , Ch4 and H2O Vapor

This is Known as GreenHouse Effect

Heat Budget Of Earth

-​ Insolation and Terrestrial Radiation is Called “ Heat Budget Of Earth “

-​ 100% Insolation
-​ 30% reflected by Outer Space
-​ 70% reach Earth's Surface - Clouds absorb or reflect much here also
-​ Only 23% reach to Earth's Surface

ALBEDO

-​ Ability of anything how much it can reflect. Every surface has its different Albedo
-​ Highest Albedo - Fresh Snow ( 80% )
-​ Sea Ice - 35%
-​ Old Snow - 59%
-​ Asphalt - 8%
-​ Land Surfaces - 14-18%

FACTORS AFFECTING ISOLATION

1.​ Transparency of Atmosphere

2.​ Length of Day
3.​ Tilt of Earth
4.​ Position of Earth relative to Sun
5.​ Rotation of Earth
6.​ Latitudes
7.​ Altitudes
 64 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TEMPERATURE INVERSION

-​ Temperature inversion occurs when temperature increases with altitude instead of

decreasing as it normally does in the troposphere.

Key Points:

●​ More common in polar regions than near the equator.

●​ Occurs during long winter nights when the Earth's surface loses heat rapidly,
cooling the air near the ground while the upper layers remain relatively warmer.
●​ Prevents convection, trapping cold air and pollutants near the surface, leading to fog
and smog.

Heat Transfer Processes Involved:

1.​ Conduction – The ground cools down first and transfers this cold to the air directly in
contact with it.
2.​ Convection Suppressed – Since the cooler air is denser, it stays near the ground
instead of rising, leading to an inversion layer.

Important thing required for this

-​ Long winter Nights

-​ Calm and Stable environment to protect mixing of Gases
-​ Cloudless Nights

Stratosphere

-​ Strat after the Tropopause

-​ Go up to - 50 km
-​ Airplanes Fly in this Layer
-​ Formation of Ozone layer - Roughly 35 Km
-​ Temperature increases on moving up
-​ Ozone layer Save earth from UV rays
-​ Thickness measured in Dobson Unit
-​ Thin ozone layer referred as - Ozone Hole - Antarctica
-​ Ozone layer is Affected or Destroyed by - CFCS , Freons ( Used in refrigerator )
-​ Ozone Day - 16th September (1987 )
 65 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

Mesosphere

-​ Temperature Decrease while moving up

-​ Start after Stratopause
-​ Coldest layer
-​ Height - Up tp 80 Km
-​ Meteorites burn in this Layer

Thermosphere

-​ Also known as Ionosphere - Ions found here

-​ Radio Waves reflected here - Communication possible
-​ Warmest Layer - Because Of the presence of Ions
-​ Height - 80 -800km

Exosphere

-​ Space started from here

Trick To Learn - ThankYou So much The Ex

KARMON LAYER - Boundary where Atmosphere end and outer Space start

LAPSE RATE - The rate at which temperature Decrease 1 Degree - 165 Meter
 66 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

WHERE IS EARTH'S WATER ? ​ ​

-​ SaltWater - 97.2%
-​ Freshwater - 2.8%

Order of freshWater

-​ Glaciers - 68.7%
-​ Groundwater - 30.1%
-​ Lakes
-​ Ground Ice and Permafrost
 67 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

WATER CYCLE

Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

-​ The water cycle is the continuous movement of water within the Earth and
atmosphere. It involves various processes that help circulate water between different
reservoirs like oceans, rivers, atmosphere, and underground sources.

Main Stages of the Water Cycle:

1.​ Evaporation:
-​ The Sun heats water from oceans, lakes, and rivers, converting it into water
vapor.
-​ Transpiration (from plants) and sublimation (from ice and snow) also contribute
to this process.
2.​ Condensation:
-​ Water vapor cools and changes into tiny droplets, forming clouds.
-​ This process releases latent heat into the atmosphere.

Different forms of Condensation

-​ Hygroscopic Nuclei - Want a particle to Freeze around

1.​ Fog - Less visibility
 68 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

2.​ Most - Amount of Moisture is more

3.​ Due - Dont need hygroscopic Nuclei
4.​ Smog - Smoke + Fog

Cloud Seeding - Particles are places where rain occurs. Seeds of Silver Iodide

3.​ Precipitation:
-​ When water droplets in clouds combine and become heavy, they fall to the
ground as rain, snow, graupel ,
-​ Sleet - Frozen and refrozen raindrop , Small Size
-​ Hail - Bigger in Size
4.​ Infiltration and Percolation:
-​ Some water seeps into the ground and replenishes groundwater.
-​ This water moves deeper through soil layers in a process called percolation.
5.​ Runoff:
-​ Excess water flows over the Earth's surface into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
-​ This process helps transport nutrients and sediments.
6.​ Storage:
-​ Water is temporarily stored in glaciers, groundwater, and surface water bodies
before continuing the cycle.

Significance of the Water Cycle:

●​ Maintains Earth’s water balance.

●​ Regulates climate and weather patterns.
●​ Supports life by distributing fresh water across ecosystems.

This cycle is powered by solar energy and plays a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth.

HUMIDITY

-​ Amount of
-​ Water Vapour present in atmosphere
-​ Seen in Summer
-​ Water vapour - It is a gas , the amount of which decrease with Altitude
-​ Evaporation change water into Vapour - Present in our Atmosphere
-​ Instrument to Measure humidity - HYGROMETER
 69 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

Absolute Humidity: The total amount of water vapor present in a unit volume of air,
measured in grams per cubic meter (g/m³)

Relative Humidity: The percentage of water vapor in the air compared to the maximum
amount it can hold at a given temperature.

Saturated Air: Air that contains the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at a given
temperature and pressure. Any further cooling or moisture addition will lead to condensation.

Dew Point: The temperature at which air becomes saturated, and water vapor begins to
condense into dew, fog, or clouds.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLOUDS

-​ Study of Clouds - Nephology

-​ Nimbus - Came from the Word “ Nimbo” - Rain Wearing - Opaque , Block Sunlight
-​ Cumulus - Wool Shape , Cauliflower shape , Normally don't rain , Flat base , Height -
4000 - 7000 Meter
-​ Cirrus - Feather shape , Made up of Ice crystals , Never rains , Very High in the Sky -
Height 8000 Meter - 12000 Meter
-​ Stratus - low Level clouds , Exist in form of layers
-​ Mixing of Clouds - Cumulonimbus - Made when Cyclone came
 70 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ Halo around Sun - Cirrostratus

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RAINFALL

1. Convectional Rainfall:

-​ Occurs due to intense heating of the Earth's surface, causing warm air to rise, cool, and
condense.
-​ Common in equatorial regions (e.g., Amazon Rainforest).

2. Orographic (Relief) Rainfall:

-​ Occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a mountain range, cooling and condensing to
form rain.
-​ The windward side receives heavy rainfall, while the leeward side remains dry (rain
shadow effect).
-​ Example: Western Ghats in India.

3. Cyclonic (Frontal) Rainfall:

-​ Occurs when warm and cold air masses meet, causing the warm air to rise, cool, and
condense into rain
-​ Common in temperate regions and during cyclones.
-​ Example: Monsoon rains in India due to low-pressure systems.
 71 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPICS - 7 - WINDS
WHY WIND BLOWS ?

-​ Pressure Difference
-​ Cold Air - It is dense and Always sinks - High Pressure
-​ Warm Air - Always rise - Low pressure
-​ So cold Air moves from High pressure to Low pressure to fill the Gap
-​ Low pressure at Equator - Because of excessive Heat
-​ Poles - High pressure
-​ Low pressure wind rise and cool down with Altitude and make the place High Pressure -
After becoming cold it start sinking from High pressure to low Pressure
 72 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TYPES OF WINDS

Trade Winds:

●​ Definition: Trade winds are steady, persistent winds that blow from east to west
in the tropical regions (between 30°N and 30°S).
●​ Direction:
○​ In the Northern Hemisphere – Blow from northeast to southwest
(Northeast Trade Winds).
○​ In the Southern Hemisphere – Blow from southeast to northwest
(Southeast Trade Winds).
●​ Cause: Created due to the Coriolis effect and movement of air from high-pressure
zones (subtropical highs) to low-pressure zones (equatorial lows).
●​ Example: Helped early sailors in navigation, hence the name "Trade Winds."

Local Winds:

●​ Definition: Local winds are short-duration winds that occur in specific regions due
to temperature and pressure differences.
 73 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

●​ Types of Local Winds:

○​ Hot Local Winds:
■​ Loo (India) – Hot, dry summer wind in North India.
■​ Chinook (USA, Canada) – Warm, dry wind that melts snow quickly.
■​ Sirocco - Sahara Desert Blood Rain
○​ Cold Local Winds:
■​ Mistral (France) – Cold, strong wind in southern France.
■​ Bora (Italy, Adriatic coast) – Cold wind from mountains to the sea.
■​ Dr Wind - Harmattan ( Gulf of Guinea )
■​ Mistral - Southern Europe
■​ Bora - Southern Europe
■​ Fohn - Alp Mountain
■​ Brick Fielder - Australia

CORIOLIS FORCE

-​ Rotation of Earth generate this force

-​ It deflect the things in Northern Hemisphere in right Direction
-​ It deflect the things in Southern Hemisphere in left Direction
-​ 0 at Equator
-​ Maximum at Poles
-​ These are Trade winds and Called Easterlies
 74 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

WHAT ARE GEOSTROPHIC WINDS ?

-​ Definition: Geostrophic winds are high-altitude winds that move parallel to isobars
due to the balance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force.

Formation:

-​ Air moves from high to low pressure due to the pressure gradient force.
-​ The Coriolis effect deflects the wind to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
left in the Southern Hemisphere
-​ When these two forces balance, the wind flows parallel to the isobars rather than
directly from high to low pressure.

Characteristics:

-​ Found in the upper atmosphere (above 1-2 km, where friction is negligible).
-​ These winds do not converge or diverge like surface winds.
-​ Example: Jet streams are a type of geostrophic wind.

ITCZ AND DOLDRUMS

ITCZ - InterTropical Convergence Zone

-​ Where North East and South East winds meet - Mostly in Equator and Depend on
Movement of Sun ( Up and Down )
-​ Aka Doldrums
-​ Found in - 10 Degree North to 10 Degree South
-​ Summer - Above Equator
-​ Winter - Lower Equator

HORSE LATITUDE

-​ 30 Degree of North and 30 Degree of South located in Both Hemisphere

-​ Region of High Atmospheric pressure , Light and Winds , dry Climate
-​ Found between trade winds and Westerlies
-​ Why is it called Horse Latitude ? - Horse are put in Ocean to lessen the Weight of Ship
-​ Anabatic - Wind that goes up in Valley
-​ Catabic - Wind that goes down in Valley
-​ Instrument for wind Direction / Speed - Wind Vane / Anemometer
 75 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

Roaring Forties Furious Fifties Screaming Sixties

-​ Very fast moving winds

-​ 40 degree - Roaring Forties
-​ Same as in other
-​ It happen because of less landmass in Southern Hemisphere

LAND BREEZE AND SEA BREEZE

 76 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

SEA BREEZE (Daytime Wind)

●​ Definition: A wind that blows from the sea to the land during the day.
●​ Cause:
○​ Land heats up faster than water.
○​ Warm air over land rises, creating a low-pressure zone.
○​ Cooler, high-pressure air from the sea moves in, forming the sea breeze.
●​ Effect: Brings cool air to coastal areas.

LAND BREEZE (Nighttime Wind)

●​ Definition: A wind that blows from the land to the sea during the night.
●​ Cause:
○​ Land cools down faster than water.
○​ Warm air over the sea rises, creating a low-pressure zone.
○​ Cooler, high-pressure air from the land moves in, forming the land breeze.
●​ Effect: Keeps coastal waters warmer at night.

Key Difference:

●​ Sea Breeze: Daytime, blows from sea to land.

●​ Land Breeze: Nighttime, blows from land to sea.

CYCLONE
-​ Rotating Mass or Air known as Cyclone

Formation of a Cyclone

-​ Low pressure at Center region

-​ Coriolis force Deflect them right or left
-​ Anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere
-​ Clockwise in Southern Hemisphere
-​ Center Region - Eye of Cyclone ( No Clouds form , No rain ) - Cumulonimbus Clouds
-​ This is Tropical Cyclone

Favourable Conditions for Formation of Cyclone

-​ Large sea surface temperature

-​ Atmospheric Instability
 77 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ Coriolis Force
-​ Pre - Existing weak low pressure area

Tropical Cyclone VS ExtraTropical Cyclone

ExtraTropical Cyclone

-​ Aka Temperate
-​ Formed Because of frontogenesis
-​ Can occur in both Sea or Land
-​ Cover Large Areas
-​ Frequent
-​ West to East

Tropical Cyclone

-​ Formed in Tropical Area

-​ Only in Ocean
-​ Less area and Major destruction Maximum
-​ Rare to Occur
-​ East to West

Different Names

-​ Hurricane - Atlantic Ocean

-​ Typhoon - South China Sea and Western Pacific
-​ Willy Willy - Australia
-​ Cyclone - India
-​ Indian Ocean Cyclone has Regional Name - 169 Cyclones already named

WHAT IS ANTICYCLONE ?

-​ Formed around a High pressure

-​ High Pressure at middle
-​ Clockwise at Northern Hemisphere
-​ Anti clockwise - Southern Hemisphere
 78 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

OCEAN CURRENTS

-​ Can Move Horizontal and Vertical

-​ Vertical Movement - Upwelling
-​ Down movement - Downwelling
-​ Horizontal - Ocean Currents
-​ Gyre - formed a round Circular pattern

Reason of Movement in Water

-​ Wind - Surface water

-​ Density difference - Deep Water
-​ Gravity
-​ Cold Water moves from Poles to Equator
-​ Warm water moves from Equator to Poles

Trick To Remember Cold Ocean Currents

-​ B - Bengula
-​ P - Peru / Humboldt
-​ G - Greenland
-​ O - Oyashio
-​ L - Labrador
 79 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ F - Falkland
-​ W - West Australian Drift
-​ C - Canary Currents
-​ CALIFORNIA

Trick - BP Golf Khlete hue badh gaya West california me

EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

1.​ Formation of Deserts:

-​ Cold ocean currents cool the air above them, reducing its moisture-holding
capacity. This leads to low rainfall and the formation of coastal deserts.
○​ Examples:
■​ Atacama Desert (Chile) – Humboldt Current
■​ Namib Desert (Africa) – Benguela Current
2.​ Best Fishing Zones:
-​ Cold currents bring nutrient-rich water from the deep sea to the surface,
supporting plankton growth, which attracts fish.
○​ Examples:
■​ Newfoundland (Canada) – Labrador & Gulf Stream Convergence
■​ Japan’s Eastern Coast – Oyashio & Kuroshio Currents
3.​ Moderation of Coastal Climate:
-​ Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) increase temperatures, making coastal areas
warmer in winter.
○​ Cold currents (e.g., California Current) cool coastal areas, leading to foggy
conditions.
4.​ Impact on Monsoons:
-​ Ocean currents influence wind patterns and monsoon intensity.
○​ Example: The El Niño phenomenon weakens the Indian monsoon, causing
droughts.
5.​ Navigation and Trade:
-​ Ships use ocean currents to reduce fuel consumption and travel faster.
○​ Example: The Gulf Stream helps ships traveling from America to Europe.
 80 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPIC - 8 - WORLD MAP

-​ East Part of Africa Map with a pointed sharp line - Horn of Africa
-​ World's Largest hot Desert - Sahara ( Africa )
-​ World's Largest Desert - Antarctica ( Cold )
-​ Altain Mountain - Where China , Mongolia , Kazakhstan and Russia Meet
-​ African Grasslands are called - Sabhana
-​ South Africa Grasslands called - Veld
-​ Old name of Zambia - Northern Rhodesia , Zimbabwe - Rhodesia
-​ Copper was named after the country - Cyprus
-​ World's Longest boundary - 49th Parallel Strat ( USA And CANADA )
-​ Equator Is named after a Country - Ecuador

CONTINENTS
AREA WISE ​ ​ ​ POPULATION WISE

1.​ Asia​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Asia

2.​ Africa ​ ​ ​ ​ 2. Africa - Continent of Continent
3.​ N. America ​ ​ ​ 3. Europe
4.​ S. America ​ ​ ​ 4. N. America
5.​ Antarctica ​ ​ ​ 5. [Link]
6.​ Europe ​ ​ ​ 6. Australia ( Oceania )
7.​ Australia ​ ​ ​ 7. Antarctica - White Continent
 81 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

ASIA

Asia is the largest continent, and it is usually divided into five or six regions based on geography
and culture. Here’s a breakdown:

1. East Asia

●​ Countries:
○​ Russia - Moscow
○​ China - Beijing
○​ Japan - Tokyo , Islands - Honshu
○​ Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar
○​ South Korea - Seoul - Separated from North 38 degree Parallel Latitude
○​ North Korea - Peony Young
○​ Taiwan - Taipei City
○​ Kuril Islands - Disputed between Russia and Japan
○​ Kamchatka Peninsula - Biladi Bostock - Siberia ( Trans Siberian link ) - Longest
railway link of the World - 9300 Km length
 82 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

2. South Asia

●​ Countries:
○​ India
○​ Pakistan
○​ Bangladesh
○​ Nepal
○​ Bhutan
○​ Sri Lanka
○​ Maldives

3. Southeast Asia

●​ Mainland Southeast Asia:​

Trick - TV LMC
○​ Myanmar - Naypyidaw
○​ Thailand - Bangkok
○​ Laos - Landlocked country - Vientiane
○​ Cambodia - Phnom Penh
○​ Vietnam - Hanoi
●​ Maritime (Island) Southeast Asia:​

○​ Malaysia
-​ West Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur ( capital of Malaysia )
○​ Singapore
-​ Just Above the Equator
-​ Capital - Singapore City
○​ Indonesia
-​ Sumadhura - Largest Island
-​ Java - Jakarta ( Capital of Indonesia )
-​ Bournio
-​ Sulavesi - Saleves
-​ Bali Island
○​ Philippines
-​ Capital - Manelia
○​ Brunei
○​ East Timor
 83 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

4. Central Asia

●​ Countries: ( All Are Landlocked )

○​ Kazakhstan - Largest Landlocked Country , Trans Continental ( Some part in
Europe ) Astana
○​ Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek ( Capital )
○​ Uzbekistan - Doubly Landlocked Tashkent
○​ Turkmenistan - Ashgabat
○​ Tajikistan - Dushanbe

5. West Asia (Middle East)

●​ Countries:
○​ Turkey (partly in Asia) - Ankara
○​ Iran - Persia ( Old name ) - Terrain
○​ Iraq - Mesopotamia ( Old name ) - Baghdad
○​ Syria
○​ Jordan
○​ Lebanon
○​ Israel - Jerusalem
○​ Palestine
○​ Saudi Arabia
○​ United Arab Emirates (UAE)
○​ Oman
○​ Yemen
○​ Kuwait
○​ Bahrain
○​ Qatar
 84 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

IMPORTANT STRAITS OF WORLD

1. Strait of Malacca

●​ Between: Malaysia and Indonesia

●​ Connects: Andaman Sea and South China Sea
●​ Importance: One of the busiest maritime trade routes; crucial for China’s oil imports.

2. Palk Strait

●​ Between: India and Sri Lanka

●​ Connects: Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mannar
●​ Importance: Historical and cultural significance; Adam’s Bridge (Ram Setu) is located
here.

3. Gibraltar Strait

●​ Between: Spain (Europe) and Morocco (Africa)

●​ Connects: Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean
●​ Importance: A key chokepoint for trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

4. Hormuz Strait

●​ Between: UAE/Oman and Iran

●​ Connects: Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
●​ Importance: Major route for global oil supply (~20% of world’s oil trade).

5. Bosporus Strait

●​ Between: European Turkey and Asian Turkey

●​ Connects: Black Sea and Sea of Marmara
●​ Importance: Controls access to Eastern Europe and Russia; vital for trade and military
strategy.

6. Bering Strait

●​ Between: Russia (Asia) and USA (Alaska, North America)

●​ Connects: Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea
●​ Importance: Cold War significance; potential Arctic shipping route.
 85 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

7. Bab el Mandeb Strait

●​ Between: Yemen (Asia) and Djibouti (Africa)

●​ Connects: Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
●​ Importance: Key maritime route for trade between Europe and Asia.

8. English Channel (Dover Strait)

●​ Between: UK and France

●​ Connects: North Sea and Atlantic Ocean
●​ Importance: Major shipping route; site of World War II events like D-Day.

9. Sunda Strait

●​ Between: Sumatra and Java (Indonesia)

●​ Connects: Indian Ocean and Java Sea
●​ Importance: Volcanic region; alternative trade route to Malacca Strait.

10. Magellan Strait

●​ Between: Mainland South America and Tierra del Fuego (Chile, Argentina)
●​ Connects: Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
●​ Importance: Historic trade route before the Panama Canal; challenging navigation due
to rough waters.

SEA OF CENTRAL ASIA

Aral Sea

Black Sea - Countries Border

-​ Trick - The Burger

-​ Turkiye
-​ Bulgaria
-​ Russia
-​ Georgia
-​ Ukraine
-​ Romania
 86 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

River Draining into Black Sea

-​ Danube
-​ Dniper
-​ Dnister
-​ Don

Caspian Sea - Largest Sea ( Trick - TARIK ) - Boorder

-​ Turkmenistan
-​ Azerbaijan
-​ Russia
-​ Iran
-​ Kazakhstan

Rivers Draining into Caspian Sea

-​ Volga
-​ Ural
-​ Terek

TRANSCONTIAL COUNTRY

1.​ Russia
2.​ Kazakhstan
3.​ Turkey
4.​ Egypt - Africa and Asia
 87 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

AFRICA

-​ Known As “ Continent of Continent “

-​ African Grasslands are called -
-​ Congo river - Cuts Equator Twice
-​ Limpopo river - Cuts Tropic of Capricorn Twice
-​ Only continent from where all three Important Latitude pass

NILE RIVER

-​ World Longest river flow here - Nile

-​ Made from White Nile and Blue Nile ( Tributary )
-​ Lake Victoria - White Nile start From here
 88 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

RED SEA - Country Border it , Trick - DESSEY

-​ Djibouti
-​ Eritrea
-​ Sudan
-​ Somalia - Known as “Gateway of Tears “ Famous for its Pirates
-​ Egypt - Cairo , Highest Civilian Award - Order of the Nile
-​ Yamen

GREAT AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY

-​ There are So many lakes - Lake Tanganyika , Tana , Turkana , Malami

-​ East - Lake Victoria

MOUNTAINS

Atlas - North Western Part

Mount Kilimanjaro

-​ Africa's highest Peak

-​ Located in Tanzania
-​ Volcanic Mountain
-​ 5895 Meter
-​ World's tallest freeStanding mountain in the world

SAHARA DESERT

-​ World's Largest Hot or Warm Desert

Other Desert - Kalahari desert , Namib Desert - Formed Because of Cold Ocean Currents -
Bengeula Current

GIBRALTAR STRAIT

-​ Seperating Africa from Europe

-​ Adding Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea
 89 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

NORTH AMERICA

Important Country

-​ Mexico - Mexico City

-​ United States - Washington DC
-​ Canada - Potawa
 90 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

BERING STRAIT

-​ Separate North America and Asia

-​ Join Arctic Ocean and Pacific Ocean

PANAMA ISTHMUS

-​ It connects North And South America

-​ Separate Atlantic ocean from Pacific

MOUNTAINS

Rocky Mountain

-​ Young Fold Mountains

-​ Highest Peak - Mount Mckinley / Denali - 6190 Meter

Aplacinan

-​ Old fold Mountains

LAKES ( USA CANADA - Border )

-​ Trick - HOMES
-​ Huran
-​ Ontario
-​ Michigan
-​ Erin
-​ Superior - Largest Freshwater lake

DESERT

-​ Mojave
-​ Sonoran
-​ Death Valley - Intense heat
 91 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

SOUTH AMERICA

-​ Grassland of Brazil - Compose

-​ Evergreen Forest - 20% of World's Oxygen
-​ Largest Country -Brazil { Barsila }
-​ Chile - Santiago

ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGES

-​ Longest Mountain Ranges

-​ Highest peak - Mount Aconcagua ( 6961 Meter )
-​ 2nd largest Mountain ranges - Rocky Mountain

ATACAMA DESERT - World's Driest Desert

-​ Ecuador - Mount Cotopaxi ( Volcano )

-​ Chile - Argentina Border - Ojas Del Salado - Highest Volcanic Mountain
 92 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

EUROPE

Mediterranean Climate

-​ Rainfall In Winter
-​ Famous for Citrus Fruit and Wine
-​ Western Mid- Latitude Country

Highest Peak - Mount Elbrus - 5642 Meter

-​ English Channel - Separate UK and France

-​ Hindenburg Line - Separate Germany and Poland
-​ Maginot Line - Separate Germany and France
 93 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRY

-​ Norway
-​ Sweden
-​ Denmark

NORDIC COUNTRIES

-​ Scandinavian Country
-​ Finland
-​ Iceland

OCEANIA
-​ New Zealand is the part of Polynesia
-​ Great Australian Desert in Australia
-​ Longest river - Murray
-​ Great barrier reef in North Eastern Australia
-​ Australia - Canberra
-​ New Zealand - Wellington

BASS STRAIT - Separates Tasmania from Australia

ANTARCTICA
-​ No population
-​ Highest peak - Mount Vinson
-​ India's research center - Bharti , Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri
 94 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

TOPIC - 9 - STATIC GK WORLD

GEOGRAPHY

1. Important Continents & Their Features

●​ Asia – Largest & most populous continent, home to the Himalayas &
Gobi Desert.
●​ Africa – Second largest, home to the Sahara Desert, Nile River & Victoria
Falls.
●​ North America – Largest freshwater lakes (Great Lakes), longest
country (Canada).
●​ South America – Amazon Rainforest, Andes Mountains, Atacama
Desert.
●​ Europe – Alps Mountains, Rhine River, Scandinavian Peninsula.
●​ Australia – Smallest continent, home to Great Barrier Reef & Outback
Desert.
●​ Antarctica – Coldest continent, mostly covered in ice, no permanent
human population.

2. Important Oceans & Their Features

●​ Pacific Ocean – Largest & deepest ocean, home to Mariana Trench

(deepest point on Earth).
●​ Atlantic Ocean – Second largest, separates America from Europe &
Africa.
●​ Indian Ocean – Surrounded by Africa, India & Australia, important for
trade routes.
●​ The Southern Ocean – Surrounds Antarctica, has strongest ocean
currents.
●​ Arctic Ocean – Smallest & shallowest ocean, covered by polar ice caps.
 95 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

3. Major Rivers of the World

●​ Nile River (Africa) – Longest river in the world (6650 km), flows
through Egypt, Sudan.
●​ Amazon River (South America) – Largest river by volume, flows
through Brazil, Peru.
●​ Yangtze River (China) – Longest river in Asia, home to Three Gorges
Dam.
●​ Mississippi River (USA) – Major river of North America.
●​ Danube River (Europe) – Flows through 10 countries, including
Germany, Austria, Hungary.
●​ Volga River (Russia) – Longest river in Europe, important for Russian
transport.

4. Important Lakes of the World

●​ Caspian Sea – Largest lake in the world (Saltwater), borders Russia,

Iran, Kazakhstan
●​ Superior Lake (USA-Canada) – Largest freshwater lake.
●​ Victoria Lake (Africa) – Largest lake in Africa.
●​ Titicaca Lake - Highest Navigable lake in the world ( Peru. Bolavia )
●​ Baikal Lake (Russia) – Deepest freshwater lake, holds 20% of the
world’s freshwater.
●​ Dead Sea (Israel-Jordan) – Saltiest water body, lowest point on
Earth's surface.
●​ Baikar Lake - Deepest lake ( Russia)
●​ HOMES -
-​ Huron
-​ Ontario
-​ Michigan
-​ Erie
 96 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

-​ Superior - USA - Khalistan Border ( World's Largest freshwater lake )

5. Major Mountain Ranges & Their Peaks

●​ Himalayas (Asia) – Mt. Everest (8848 m, highest peak in the world).

●​ Andes (South America) – Longest mountain range.
●​ Rocky Mountains (North America) – Runs from Canada to the USA.
●​ Alps (Europe) – Major European range (Switzerland, France, Austria,
Italy).
●​ Ural Mountains (Russia) – Separates Europe & Asia.

6. Major Deserts of the World

●​ Sahara Desert (Africa) – Largest hot desert in the world.

●​ Gobi Desert (China & Mongolia) – Coldest desert.
●​ Kalahari Desert (Africa) – Famous for wildlife & Bushmen tribes.
●​ Atacama Desert (Chile) – Driest place on Earth.
●​ Great Victoria Desert (Australia) – Largest desert in Australia.

7. Important Straits of the World

(Straits are narrow water bodies connecting two seas)

●​ Bering Strait – Between Russia & USA (Alaska).

●​ Malacca Strait – Between Malaysia & Indonesia, busiest trade route.
●​ Gibraltar Strait – Between Spain & Morocco, connects the Atlantic &
Mediterranean.
●​ Hormuz Strait – Between Iran & UAE, controls oil trade.
●​ Bosporus Strait – Separates Europe & Asia, connects Black Sea &
Mediterranean.
●​ Dover Strait – Between UK & France.
 97 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

8. Important Islands & Island Groups

●​ Greenland – Largest island in the world (belongs to Denmark).

●​ Madagascar – Largest island in Africa.
●​ Borneo – Largest island in Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei).
●​ New Guinea – Second largest island (Indonesia & Papua New Guinea).
●​ Japan Islands – Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku.
●​ Caribbean Islands – Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola.
●​ British Isles – UK & Ireland.

9. Important Peninsulas

(A peninsula is a landmass surrounded by water on three sides)

●​ Arabian Peninsula – Largest peninsula (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman,

Yemen, Qatar, Bahrain).
●​ Indian Peninsula – Southern part of India.
●​ Iberian Peninsula – Spain & Portugal.
●​ Scandinavian Peninsula – Norway & Sweden.
●​ Korean Peninsula – North Korea & South Korea.

10. Important Volcanoes

●​ Mount Vesuvius (Italy) – Destroyed Pompeii in 79 AD.

●​ Mount Etna (Italy) – Most active volcano in Europe.
●​ Mount Krakatoa (Indonesia) – Deadliest eruption in 1883.
●​ Mount St. Helens (USA) – Erupted in 1980, major volcanic disaster.
●​ Mauna Loa (Hawaii, USA) – Largest volcano on Earth.
 98 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

11. Major Tectonic Plates

●​ Pacific Plate – Largest plate, causes frequent earthquakes in Japan &

California.
●​ Eurasian Plate – Europe & Asia.
●​ Indian Plate – Subducting under the Himalayas, causing earthquakes
in India & Nepal.
●​ African Plate – Splitting into two (East African Rift).
●​ North American Plate – Causes San Andreas Fault earthquakes.

12. Important Time Zones & Meridians

●​ Prime Meridian (0° Longitude) – Passes through Greenwich, UK.

●​ International Date Line (180° Longitude) – Separates different
calendar dates.
●​ Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) – Passes through India, Mexico, Saudi
Arabia.
●​ Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S) – Passes through Brazil, Australia.
●​ Equator (0° Latitude) – Divides Earth into Northern & Southern
Hemispheres.

13. Important Canals of the World

(Canals are artificial waterways for transport & trade)

●​ Suez Canal (Egypt) – Connects Red Sea & Mediterranean, major trade
route.
●​ Panama Canal (Panama) – Connects Atlantic & Pacific Oceans.
●​ Kiel Canal (Germany) – Connects North Sea & Baltic Sea.

14. Most Populous Cities

 99 Rishi Yadav 8957457764

●​ Tokyo (Japan) – Largest city by population.

●​ Delhi (India) – Second most populous city.
●​ Shanghai (China) – Largest city in China.
●​ New York (USA) – Largest city in the USA.

15. World's Largest Countries by Area

1.​ Russia
2.​ Canada
3.​ China
4.​ USA
5.​ Brazil
6.​ Australia
7.​ India

Yes! Here are some important seas, bays, gulfs, and other water bodies that
frequently appear in SSC, UPSC, and other competitive exams.

16. Important Seas of the World 🌊

●​ Arabian Sea – Lies between India, Pakistan, Oman, connects to Persian
Gulf via Strait of Hormuz.
●​ Bay of Bengal – Largest bay in the world, touches India, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, famous for cyclones.
●​ South China Sea – Rich in oil & natural gas, a major disputed region
between China & neighboring countries.
●​ Mediterranean Sea – Connects Europe, Africa & Asia, linked to the
Atlantic via Strait of Gibraltar.
●​ Black Sea – Connected to the Mediterranean via Bosporus Strait, important
for Russia & Ukraine.
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●​ Red Sea – Separates Africa & Arabian Peninsula, connects to Suez

Canal.
●​ Caspian Sea – Largest enclosed water body, bordered by Russia, Iran,
Kazakhstan (technically a lake).
●​ Baltic Sea – Between Northern Europe (Sweden, Finland, Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany).
●​ North Sea – Oil & gas-rich, between UK, Norway, Denmark, Germany,
Netherlands.
●​ Caribbean Sea – Part of Atlantic Ocean, famous for Hurricane Belt,
tourism (Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico).
●​ Bering Sea – Between Alaska (USA) & Russia, known for the Bering
Strait.
●​ Okhotsk Sea – East of Russia & Japan, covered by ice for most of the year.

17. Important Gulfs of the World 🌊

(A gulf is a deep inlet of the sea, almost surrounded by land.)

●​ Gulf of Mexico – Largest gulf in the world, touches USA, Mexico, Cuba,
rich in oil.
●​ Persian Gulf – Between Iran & Arabian Peninsula, rich in oil reserves,
connected to Arabian Sea via Strait of Hormuz.
●​ Gulf of Aden – Between Yemen & Somalia, important for shipping.
●​ Gulf of Oman – Connects Persian Gulf & Arabian Sea.
●​ Gulf of Thailand – Part of South China Sea, bordered by Thailand,
Cambodia, Vietnam.
●​ Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez) – Between Baja California Peninsula
& Mexico.
●​ Gulf of Carpentaria – North of Australia, important for fisheries.
●​ Gulf of Guinea – West Africa, important for oil production.

18. Important Bays of the World 🌊

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(A bay is a body of water partially enclosed by land.)

●​ Bay of Bengal – Largest bay in the world, borders India, Bangladesh,

Myanmar.
●​ Hudson Bay (Canada) – Largest bay in North America, frozen most of
the year.
●​ Chesapeake Bay (USA) – Largest estuary in the USA, important for
fishing & trade.
●​ Bay of Biscay – Between France & Spain, known for storms &
shipwrecks.
●​ San Francisco Bay (USA) – Important for shipping & trade.
●​ Tokyo Bay (Japan) – Important for Japan’s economy & industry.

19. Important Channels of the World

(A channel is a waterway between two landmasses.)

●​ English Channel – Separates UK & France, has Eurotunnel (Channel

Tunnel) under it.
●​ Mozambique Channel – Between Madagascar & Mozambique, important
for trade routes.
●​ Palk Strait & Mannar Channel – Between India & Sri Lanka.
●​ Bering Strait – Narrow passage between Alaska (USA) & Russia.
●​ Sunda Strait – Between Java & Sumatra islands (Indonesia).

20. Major Coral Reefs of the World 🪸

(Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems formed by coral polyps.)

●​ Great Barrier Reef (Australia) – Largest coral reef system in the

world.
●​ Belize Barrier Reef (Caribbean) – Second-largest coral reef system.
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●​ New Caledonia Barrier Reef (Pacific Ocean) – Largest in the South

Pacific.
●​ Red Sea Coral Reef (Egypt-Saudi Arabia) – One of the warmest coral
reefs.
●​ Andaman & Nicobar Coral Reefs (India) – Rich in marine biodiversity.

21. Important Waterfalls of the World 🌊

●​ Angel Falls (Venezuela) – Tallest waterfall in the world.
●​ Victoria Falls (Zambia-Zimbabwe) – Largest waterfall by volume,
known as "The Smoke That Thunders".
●​ Niagara Falls (USA-Canada) – Most famous waterfall in North
America.
●​ Iguazu Falls (Brazil-Argentina) – One of the wider waterfalls in the
world.
●​ Yosemite Falls (USA) – One of the tallest in North America.

22. Important Deltas of the World

(A delta is a landform at the mouth of a river where it meets a sea/ocean.)

●​ Sundarbans Delta (India-Bangladesh) – Largest delta in the world,

formed by Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna Rivers.
●​ Nile Delta (Egypt) – Important for Egyptian agriculture.
●​ Mississippi Delta (USA) – Rich in biodiversity & oil reserves.
●​ Amazon Delta (Brazil) – One of the widest river mouths in the world.
●​ Mekong Delta (Vietnam) – Important for rice cultivation.

23. Major Ice Shelves & Glaciers ❄️

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●​ Antarctic Ice Sheet – Largest ice mass on Earth.

●​ Greenland Ice Sheet – Second largest ice mass.
●​ Ross Ice Shelf (Antarctica) – Largest ice shelf in the world.
●​ Larsen Ice Shelf (Antarctica) – Breaking apart due to climate change.
●​ Gangotri Glacier (India) – Source of the Ganges River.
●​ Siachen Glacier (India-Pakistan) – Highest battlefield in the world.
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IMPORTANT COUNTRIES

1. INDIA 🇮🇳
●​ Capital: New Delhi
●​ Currency: Indian Rupee (INR)
●​ Largest State (Area): Rajasthan
●​ Smallest State (Area): Goa
●​ Largest Union Territory: Ladakh
●​ Smallest Union Territory: Lakshadweep
●​ Longest River: Ganges
●​ Highest Peak: Kangchenjunga (8,586 m)
●​ Largest Lake: Vembanad Lake (Kerala)
●​ National Animal: Bengal Tiger
●​ National Bird: Peacock
●​ National Flower: Lotus
●​ First President of India: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
●​ First Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru
●​ Longest Coastline State: Gujarat
●​ Neighboring Countries: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka (via sea).

2. CHINA 🇨🇳
●​ Capital: Beijing
●​ Currency: Yuan (Renminbi)
●​ Largest Population in the World (~1.4 billion)
●​ Longest Wall: The Great Wall of China
●​ Longest River: Yangtze River
●​ Highest Peak: Mount Everest (shared with Nepal)
●​ Largest Desert: Gobi Desert
●​ Most Powerful Leader in History: Mao Zedong
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●​ Largest Producer of Rice, Tea, and Silk

●​ China-India Border Dispute: Aksai Chin & Arunachal Pradesh

3. United States of America (USA) 🇺🇸

●​ Capital: Washington D.C.
●​ Currency: US Dollar (USD)
●​ Largest State (Area): Alaska
●​ Smallest State (Area): Rhode Island
●​ Longest River: Mississippi-Missouri River
●​ Highest Peak: Denali (Alaska)
●​ Independence Day: July 4, 1776
●​ First President: George Washington
●​ Current President: ( Donald Trump )
●​ Statue of Liberty: Gift from France
●​ NASA Headquarters: Washington D.C.
●​ Pentagon: Headquarters of US Defense

4. RUSSIA 🇷🇺
●​ Capital: Moscow
●​ Currency: Russian Ruble
●​ Largest Country by Area (17.1 million sq km)
●​ Longest Railway: Trans-Siberian Railway
●​ Largest Lake: Caspian Sea (bordering Russia)
●​ Major Mountain Range: Ural Mountains
●​ Longest River: Volga River
●​ Russian Revolution (1917): Led to the rise of Communism
●​ First Country to Send a Human into Space: Yuri Gagarin (1961)
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5. United Kingdom (UK) 🇬🇧

●​ Capital: London
●​ Currency: British Pound Sterling (£)
●​ Comprises Four Countries: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland
●​ Longest River: River Severn
●​ Famous Clock Tower: Big Ben
●​ Monarchy: King Charles III (Current Monarch)
●​ World's First Industrial Revolution (18th Century)
●​ World’s First Metro System: London Underground

6. FRANCE 🇫🇷
●​ Capital: Paris
●​ Currency: Euro (€)
●​ Tallest Structure: Eiffel Tower
●​ Longest River: Loire River
●​ Famous Museum: Louvre Museum (Mona Lisa)
●​ French Revolution (1789): Led to the end of Monarchy
●​ Famous Emperor: Napoleon Bonaparte
●​ Nuclear Power Leader in Europe

7. GERMANY 🇩🇪
●​ Capital: Berlin
●​ Currency: Euro (€)
●​ Largest Economy in Europe
●​ German Unification (1990): East & West Germany Reunited
●​ Famous Highway: Autobahn (No Speed Limit)
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●​ World War Leader: Adolf Hitler (1933-1945)

●​ Longest River: Rhine River
●​ Berlin Wall (1961-1989): Divided East & West Berlin

8. JAPAN 🇯🇵
●​ Capital: Tokyo
●​ Currency: Japanese Yen (¥)
●​ Most Earthquake-Prone Country
●​ Only Country to Experience Nuclear Bombing: Hiroshima & Nagasaki (1945)
●​ Famous Bullet Train: Shinkansen
●​ First Asian Country to Industrialize
●​ Highest Peak: Mount Fuji
●​ World’s Third Largest Economy

9. BRAZIL 🇧🇷
●​ Capital: Brasília
●​ Currency: Brazilian Real
●​ Largest Country in South America
●​ Amazon Rainforest: World’s Largest Rainforest
●​ Longest River: Amazon River
●​ Largest Coffee Producer in the World
●​ Famous Festival: Rio Carnival
●​ Most Successful FIFA World Cup Team (5 Titles)
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10. CANADA 🇨🇦
●​ Capital: Ottawa
●​ Currency: Canadian Dollar (CAD)
●​ Second Largest Country by Area
●​ Longest Coastline in the World
●​ Most Lakes in the World
●​ Largest Waterfall: Niagara Falls (shared with USA)
●​ Indigenous People: Inuit, First Nations, Métis

11. AUSTRALIA 🇦🇺
●​ Capital: Canberra
●​ Currency: Australian Dollar (AUD)
●​ Largest Coral Reef System: Great Barrier Reef
●​ Largest Island & Smallest Continent
●​ Largest Desert: Great Victoria Desert
●​ Famous Opera House: Sydney Opera House
●​ Only Country Continent in the World

12. South Africa 🇿🇦

●​ Capital: Pretoria (Administrative), Cape Town (Legislative), Bloemfontein (Judicial)
●​ Currency: South African Rand (ZAR)
●​ Famous Anti-Apartheid Leader: Nelson Mandela
●​ Largest Diamond Producer
●​ Famous Desert: Kalahari Desert
●​ Most Gold Mines in the World
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13. Saudi Arabia 🇸🇦

●​ Capital: Riyadh
●​ Currency: Saudi Riyal (SAR)
●​ Largest Oil Producer in the World
●​ Most Sacred Islamic Sites: Mecca & Medina
●​ Desert Region: Arabian Desert
●​ Richest Royal Family in the World

14. EGYPT 🇪🇬
●​ Capital: Cairo
●​ Currency: Egyptian Pound (EGP)
●​ Longest River in the World: Nile River
●​ Famous Pyramids: Great Pyramids of Giza
●​ Suez Canal: Connects Red Sea & Mediterranean Sea

15. ISRAEL 🇮🇱
●​ Capital: Jerusalem
●​ Currency: Israeli Shekel (ILS)
●​ Technological & Defense Powerhouse
●​ Famous Conflict: Israel-Palestine Dispute
●​ Dead Sea: Saltiest Water Body on Earth
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A MESSAGE FROM MY SIDE RISHI YADAV TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THESE

NOTES

-​ These are World Geography Notes for SSC and Other Competitive Exams
-​ Cover almost every aspect from where questions can be formed
-​ Go through Parmar Sir batch 3.0 Videos for better understanding of these notes
-​ Solve PYQS
-​ You can add important points and as per the need of the exam
-​ Just revise them 5-8 Times and remember the highlighted and Important points.
-​ There is enough Space in between to add additional information about any Topic
-​ There are some concepts which you can only understand after completing Indian
Geography
-​ Both Indian And World Geography are connected to each other
-​ As compared to Indian Geography - World Geography is less important - But is
important to understand Indian Geography
-​ For the Basic and Deep Understanding - Go through NCERTS ( Class - 6th - 10th ) - If
you have enough time

JUST REVISE AND GIVE YOUR BEST - You can Easily Ace the Exam With Revision
and Dedication