Repair and Rehabilitation of

structure
Need for Repair and Rehabilitation of structure
• Faulty design of the structure
• Improper execution and bad workmanship
• Extreme weather and environmental conditions
• High degree of chemical attack
• Ageing of the structure
Deterioration of Concrete
Physically and Chemically induced deterioration mechanisms
 Deterioration of concrete
• The deterioration of concrete is a relatively slow process which may
be caused due to various factors and processes in nature
• Deterioration can take place in concrete in its fresh (or plastic) state
and in its hardened state
• The factors and processes that cause deterioration of concrete may
be classified based on different considerations;
• Based on the origin of the factors, they may be classified into factors
of external and internal origin
• Based on the nature of the factors, they may be classified as physical
and chemical
Physically Induced Deterioration of Concrete
• Under this classification, the factors/processes that initiate
deterioration in concrete by creating stresses or volume changes, are
considered
• Here, the deterioration subdivided into
• Deterioration in the early stages
• Deterioration due to temperature gradient
• Deterioration of concrete due to freeze-thaw cycles
• Deterioration of Concrete due to Mechanical Abrasion, Erosion and Cavitation
Deterioration in the early stages (1)
Deterioration due to settlement of concrete ingredients and bleeding
• The density of aggregate particles is higher than the density of the
cement paste
• Due to this the aggregate particles settle faster due to gravity
• This is called plastic settlement
• Due to the settlement of the aggregate particles, the cement paste is
displaced upwards
• Also, in the cement paste the heavier cement particles settle faster
displacing water upwards
• This is called bleeding of concrete
Deterioration in the early stages (2)
Trapping of bleed water under reinforcement bars
• When the aggregate under the reinforcement settles in the paste, the
rising bleed water may get trapped under the reinforcement bar

• Due to this, the bond between the bar and the hardening concrete
will not be strong and in some cases, the drying of trapped bleed
water creates a void under the reinforcement

• This may lead to the corrosion of the bar at the location of the void
Deterioration in the early stages (3)
Trapping of bleed water under aggregate particle
• When the rising bleed water gets trapped under an aggregate
particle, it leaves a void after drying out

• This void, if water-filled, may lead to deterioration due to cracking or

pop-out of the aggregate as a result of freezing of the water,
especially if the void is close to the surface
Deterioration in the early stages (4)
Plastic Settlement
• Cracks caused when the settlement of fresh concrete is restrained by reinforcement or
formwork.
• Plastic settlement cracks can form in young concrete, within the first few hours after
placing.
• As water moves upward through the mixture, the denser constituents move downward.
This downward movement may be obstructed by the top layer of reinforcement or by
the shuttering.
• Plastic settlement is the settlement of the concrete ingredients due to gravity
• However, if there is an obstacle to this settlement, the settling concrete may arch over
the obstacle, creating a crack above it.
• This happens because the concrete ingredients settle but the obstacle does not.
• One of the most common obstacles to the settlement is horizontal reinforcement bars at
the top, due to which the concrete above the bar cracks and may lead to its corrosion
Plastic settlement cracks
Plastic settlement cracks
Deterioration in the early stages (5)
Plastic Shrinkage
• At the surface of concrete, if the rate of evaporation of bleed water is
faster than the rate of bleeding, there is net reduction in the volume
of surface concrete and it tries to shrink.
• However, this shrinkage is restrained by the concrete in lower layers,
which has a more stable volume than the upper layer, which causes
tensile stresses in concrete leading to plastic shrinkage cracks.
• This phenomenon takes place in fresh concrete, within hours after it
is placed and is commonly observed on large horizontal surfaces
exposed to the environment.
• These cracks are normally parallel to each other.
• Concreting of flat slabs on a hot or windy day and not protecting the
surface is highly susceptible to plastic shrinkage cracks.
Plastic shrinkage cracks

Plastic shrinkage and settlement

cracking in concrete - YouTube
Deterioration in the early stages (6)
Deterioration due to Temperature Gradient
• The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction.
• During this reaction, the temperature of concrete rises, leading to the
expansion of concrete.
• As the rate of hydration falls, there is a drop in temperature causing
the concrete to contract
• If the concrete is allowed to expand and contract freely without
restraint, then there would be no thermal cracking in it
• However, in relatively larger concrete sections, a large difference in
temperature between the middle part and outer parts is created as
the heat of hydration in the middle part cools very slowly and that at
the outer part cools rapidly.
Deterioration in the early stages (7)
• This sets up a very steep temperature gradient between the middle
and outer parts of the section
• Due to this temperature gradient, the concrete in the middle is in
compression and that at the outer part is in tension
• This tension causes cracks on the surface called thermal cracks.
• The width of these cracks is in the range of 0.01-0.1 mm and the
depth is less than 50 mm

Thermal Cracking in
Reinforced Concrete -
YouTube
Deterioration in the early stages (8)
Deterioration due to drying shrinkage
• Similar to plastic shrinkage that happens in the plastic stage of
concrete, drying shrinkage may occur in concrete once it starts
hardening.
• As concrete hardens, the water in the gel pore system, that is not
chemically combined with cement in the hydration process, may
evaporate leading to the shrinkage in volume of the cement gel.
• When this shrinkage is restrained by some factor such as a
subgrade, aggregate, other part of concrete that is not shrinking at
the same rate, then tensile stresses are developed in the gel and
when this stress exceeds the tensile capacity of concrete cracks are
created.
Drying shrinkage cracks

Shrinkage: Drying Shrinkage -

YouTube
 Deterioration of concrete due to freeze and
thaw cycles
• When water freezes to ice at its freezing point of 0°C, its volume
increases by about 9%
• The freezing of the water present in the pore system of concrete
causes a pressure in the interior that may cause disruption of
concrete if its strength is insufficient to resist the pressure
• Freeze-thaw deterioration presents itself in two forms – surface
scaling and internal damage.

Why does freezing damage concrete? | Freeze

thaw durability mechanisms - YouTube
 Deterioration of Concrete due to Mechanical
Abrasion, Erosion and Cavitation (1)
• Abrasion is a mechanical process in which the surface of a material is
removed due to scraping or wear-and-tear as a result of the rubbing
action with another surface or object
• Abrasion of concrete surface may take place due to sliding of different
materials on the surface, rolling of steel wheels, scraping motion of a
machine, etc.
• Erosion of concrete is normally caused due to the abrasion between
the abrasive material carried by water, or some other liquid that flows
past a concrete structure like a dam, offshore structure, etc.
 Deterioration of Concrete due to Mechanical
Abrasion, Erosion and Cavitation (2)
• Cavitation of concrete is caused due to the collapse of air cavities or
bubbles close to the concrete surface under flowing water
• These air bubbles are created in the flowing water due to sudden
drop in pressure at some point.
• When these bubbles are carried to a point of higher pressure, they
burst generating a spike-like hitting pulse on the concrete surface.
• Such repetitive action causes the surface concrete to be chipped off
Abrasion and Erosion of Concrete surface
 Chemically Induced Deterioration of Concrete
• Deterioration of concrete due to chemical reactions between
impurities and external agents with the ingredients of concrete and
reinforcement, or reaction between two ingredients of concrete
• The deterioration of concrete in these cases is initiated from within
and is difficult to detect until some signs such as cracking or
pigmentation is seen on the surface
 Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) (1)
• Sodium and potassium are present in the raw materials of cement,
and in hydrated cement, they exist in their soluble hydroxide forms
• The sodium and potassium hydroxides dissolve in the pore water in
concrete and make it highly alkaline
• This gives concrete its highly alkaline environment
• Most of the aggregate used in concrete is siliceous in nature
• The reaction between the strong alkaline pore water and the silica in
the aggregate is called the ASR or alkali-aggregate reaction
• In this reaction, silica and the hydroxyl ions from the strong hydroxide
solution in pore water react to form alkali-silica gel in the voids and
cracks of the aggregate or on its surface
• This gel has a property to absorb water, if available in concrete or the
environment, and swell resulting in large increase in its volume of
about 5-20%
• This increase in volume of the alkali-silica gel results in developing
high internal pressures in concrete, which leads to cracking
• On the surface, the cracks form a map-like pattern
Alkali-silica reaction

The silent killer of concrete! | Intro to Alkali

Aggregate Reaction - YouTube
Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) (3)
• There are many factors necessary for the ASR to cause deterioration
• There must sufficient amount of soluble sodium and potassium in
concrete to give the pore water a high enough concentration for the
reaction
• The aggregate must have sufficient reactive silica particles to form
large volumes of the reaction product
• There must be a source of water, either the pore water or the
environment, for the alkali-silica gel to imbibe
Factors necessary for ASR

How do you stop ASR? | A design

guide for alkali silica reaction for
concrete - YouTube
 Sulphate attack
• Sulphate attack in concrete is initiated by the water-soluble sulphates
(SO4 2-), in the soil, groundwater or seawater, penetrates into the
concrete pore system and reacts with the components such as
aluminates or calcium hydroxide in the cement paste
• The sulphates are in the form of salts like calcium sulphate,
magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate and potassium sulphate
• The reaction products occupy a significantly larger volume than the
original components, which leads to cracking of the paste
• There are various reactions between different compounds in concrete
with the sulphates, which give rise to different reaction products
• Formation of gypsum: Sulphate ions react with the calcium hydroxide
forming gypsum. The increase in the volume of gypsum is about 124%
• Formation of ettringite: The tri-calcium aluminate in cement may
react with the sulphates to form hydrous calcium aluminium sulphate
(commonly called ettringite). The increase in volume of ettringite is
about 227%
• Formation of thaumasite: Sulphates may react with the silicates or
the C-S-H gel to form thaumasite. This reaction takes place at low
temperatures.
Sulphate attack products

Chemical Sulfate Attack of Concrete

and Street Fighter?!!? - YouTube
 Acid attack: Acid rain
• Hydrated cement is highly alkaline (pH 12.5-14) due to the alkalinity of
pore water
• This makes it susceptible to attack by acids
• The acid reduces the pore water alkalinity and attacks the Ca(OH)2 and C-S-
H gel, decomposing these hydration products and forming new products
• If these new products are soluble, they may be leached out of the
structure, thus reducing the strength of concrete
• The sources of acid are acid rain, sewage, ground water, etc.
• If the pH of the acid-rain water is below 4.5, it causes weathering of the
exposed concrete surface
• Due to the poor ventilation of the sewers, the bacterial growth in
sewage can lead to a situation in which sulphuric acid is formed
• Some bacteria metabolize sulphates anaerobically and produce H2S as
a waste product while others reduce sulphur and oxidize it back into
H2SO4
• Sulphate rich runoff caused by agricultural and or industrial activities
provide the necessary "food" for the sulphate reducing bacteria
• In an anaerobic environment the bacteria metabolize the sulphate
rich sediments producing hydrogen sulphide
• This hydrogen sulphide is released in the air in the form of gas, which
combines with moisture and condense on the sewer surface as
H2SO4
• If the sewers are made of concrete, then deterioration of concrete
due to acid attack is seen above the level of flow of sewage
Acid attack in sewers
 Case study
Los Angeles Sanitary Sewer System and Hyperion
Sewage Treatment Facility
• The sewer system of Los Angeles consists of over 6000 miles of
sewers servicing an area of 600 square miles
• The life span of concrete sanitary sewers in Los Angeles are severely
shortened due to the bacterial acid attack
• For all new concrete construction, protect the inside of manholes and
the inside crown of pipes above the waterline with a sheet of acid-
resistant PVC, mechanically anchored to the concrete
• For the repair of old concrete construction, restore the concrete
surface and then protect it with an applied coating or lining
Los Angeles Sanitary Sewer System - Deterioration
of concrete from acid H2S attack
Acid attack: Aggressive CO2 (3)
• Acid attack of concrete can also be caused by exposure to water
containing an excessive amount of carbonic acid also referred to as
aggressive CO2
• Free CO2 dissolved in water takes the form of H2CO3 and if not in the
presence of adequate amounts of calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 will
contribute to the deterioration of concrete
• The destructive reaction of aggressive CO2 and concrete is a function
of the ratio of H2CO3 and Ca(HCO3)2 to which the concrete is exposed
• Both Ca(HCO3)2 and H2CO3 will react with Ca(OH)2 in concrete paste
forming CaCO3
Acid attack: Aggressive CO2 (4)
• If the water, to which concrete is exposed, contains the minimum
H2CO3 to maintain equilibrium with Ca(HCO3)2, calcium carbonate
CaCO3 will form until the pores in the concrete are filled and no
damage to concrete will occur
• If, however, an excess amount of H2CO3 is present, the additional
amount of H2CO3 will react with CaCO3 reforming Ca(HCO3)2 which is
readily removed in solution
• This process increases both the porosity and permeability of the
cement paste
 Carbonation (1)
• The carbon-di-oxide in air dissolves in the pore water in concrete and forms
carbonic acid
• This carbonic acid reacts with the Ca(OH)2 in the pore water and forms
CaCO3 (calcium carbonate or calcite) in the dissolved and crystalline form
• This reaction is called carbonation
• Carbonation begins at the surface of concrete and gradually penetrates
deeper at a rate proportional to the square root of time
𝑥 = 𝑘√𝑡
Where, x is the depth of penetration in mm; k is the carbonation coefficient;
and t is the exposure time in years
Carbonation (2)
• Carbonation causes deterioration of concrete in two ways
Carbonation shrinkage
• Calcium carbonate occupies a larger volume than calcium hydroxide
and hence decreases the porosity of concrete when it precipitates on
the pore walls
• Furthermore, once the calcium hydroxide in the pore water is entirely
consumed, then all the constituents containing CaO (like the C-S-H
gel) start decomposing and release calcium hydroxide, leaving behind
a framework of silica, alumina and iron oxide filled with calcium
carbonate
• This is stronger and less permeable than the original concrete
Carbonation (3)
• Therefore, the strength of concrete is not reduced as calcium
carbonate carries loads similar to virgin concrete
• However, reaction of the carbonic acid with the calcium carbonate
converts it to readily soluble calcium bicarbonate, which is carried by
water
• This results in shrinkage of concrete
• Carbonation shrinkage causes cracks in concrete, thereby increasing
its permeability

Carbonation – The eventual killer of

reinforced concrete - YouTube
Carbonation (4)
Carbonation induced corrosion of steel
• The pore water in concrete is highly alkalinity due to Ca(OH)2
• This alkaline environment in the concrete creates a passivity layer of
oxide around the embedded reinforcement in concrete
• Due to this passivity layer, the reaction of steel with oxygen and water
is prevented, which in turn prevents the corrosion of steel
• However, during the carbonation process, the hydroxides (Ca(OH)2) is
consumed and the alkalinity of pore water is reduced as the pH of
calcium carbonate is about 7
• As a result of the reduction in alkalinity, the passivity layer becomes
unstable and breaks and the steel is exposed to the process of
corrosion in the presence of oxygen and water
• This corrosion is called “carbonation-induced corrosion”
Carbonation induced corrosion
Penetration of Chlorides into Concrete
(Chloride attack)
• Chloride ions destroy the passive layer of oxide around the steel
reinforcement by combining and forming soluble iron compounds
• However, for this reaction to take place, chloride ion concentration in
concrete around the steel must be above a certain threshold level
• The destruction of the passive layer initiates the corrosion process in steel
in the presence of oxygen and water
• This is called chloride induced corrosion
• The sources of chloride in concrete are seawater, de-icing salts, seawater
used for mixing or curing, unwashed marine aggregates, etc.
• Chloride induced corrosion of steel is very commonly observed in off-shore
structures, bridges, dams, docks, harbour structures and car parking
structures.
Chloride induced corrosion
Deterioration of Concrete due to Corrosion of
Steel reinforcement (1)
• Steel is thermodynamically unstable in the earth’s atmosphere and
will always tend to revert to a lower energy state such as an oxide or
hydroxide by reaction with oxygen and water
• For steel embedded in concrete, the concrete itself provides a coating
limiting the access of water and oxygen to the steel surface
• A second beneficial aspect of concrete is that the solution in the
pores of the cement paste has a very high alkalinity
• At the pH levels typical of concrete, the corrosion products which do
form are insoluble
• They produce a very thin (~ few nm) protective coating on the steel (a
passive film) which limits the metal loss from the steel surface
Deterioration of Concrete due to Corrosion of
Steel reinforcement (2)
• The passive film does not form immediately but starts as soon as the pH of
the mixing water rises in the concrete when the cement begins to hydrate
and stabilizes over the first week to protect the steel from active corrosion
• However, the passive film is not stable in solutions containing chloride ions
or at pH levels below about 9
• Concrete is both permeable, allowing the ingress of chlorides from de-icing
salts or marine atmospheres, and reactive, allowing acidic gases,
particularly CO2, to neutralize the pore solution
• When the passive film is broken down either by chlorides or by
carbonation of the concrete, active corrosion occurs at rates as high as
several mm/year and it is this process which is responsible for much of the
structural degradation occurring in reinforced concrete
Deterioration of Concrete due to Corrosion of
Steel reinforcement (3)
• Corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process in which electrons and OH-
ions are transported between anode and cathode parts of the
reinforcement and an electric circuit is formed
• At the anode, positive metal ions Fe2+ are dissolved into the pore water and
electrons move to the cathode via reinforcement
• In high pH solutions and in the absence of chloride ions, the anodic
dissolution reaction of iron:
𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
• At the cathode, a chemical reaction takes place between electrons, oxygen,
and water to form hydroxyl ions which move to the anode through pore
water
• The anodic reaction is balanced by the cathodic reaction:
1ൗ 𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻−
2 2 2
• And the Fe2+ ions combine with the OH- ions to produce the stable passive
film
Deterioration of Concrete due to Corrosion of
Steel reinforcement (4)
• However, if this passive layer is broken due to chlorides or carbonation,
then the electrochemical process picks up speed
• At the anode, hydroxyl ions react with iron ions and ferrous hydroxide
(Fe(OH)2) forms, which will react with oxygen and water to produce ferric
hydroxides (Fe(OH)3), and the last component, which is the hydrate ferric
oxide (rust); its chemical term is Fe2O3.H2O
• There has to exist a difference in electrical potential between the anode
and cathode as a driving force to sustain the reaction
• Corrosion takes place only at the anode
• When iron goes to hydrated ferric oxides in the presence of water, its
volume will increase more to reach about 10 times its original volume and
will become soft
• In this stage, cracks on concrete start until the concrete cover falls; rust,
with its brown colour, can clearly be seen on the steel bar
Deterioration of Concrete due to Corrosion of
Steel reinforcement
Corrosion of steel in concrete
 Different types of repair and rehabilitation
solutions
• Structural repair and rehabilitation
• This refers to repairs to the structural members of the roof, foundation,
floor slabs and permanent exterior walls and support columns of the
Building.
• Unwanted movement in buildings can cause a good deal of distress and
worry for building owners.
• Subsidence, physical disturbance and failure of building materials are just
some of the factors that can impact the structural integrity of a property.
• Modern repair technology and advances in application techniques mean
that effective solutions are on hand to tackle the problem.
• It is always better to appoint a specialist structural surveyor to monitor the
situation before any works are deemed necessary.
• This surveillance can take a while, but the right diagnosis is always worth
waiting for.
• In short, structural repair and stabilization offer a cost-effective, low impact
and environmentally sound alternative to demolition and rebuilding.
• It is essential, therefore, that contractors with the necessary competencies
and experience are selected for the long term success of any structural
repair program.
• Advanced technology, techniques and expertise were once the preserve of
historical buildings, but now these methods are finding a place in the
restoration and preservation of more modern domestic properties.
• Cathodic protection for repair and rehabilitation
• Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making
it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
• A simple method of protection connects the metal to be protected to a more easily corroded
“sacrificial metal” to act as the anode.
• The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal.
• For structures such as long pipelines, where passive galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate,
an external DC electrical power source is used to provide sufficient current. Cathodic protection
systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments.
• Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as home water
heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings;
offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and structures.
Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating of zinc on steel
parts protects them from rust. Cathodic protection can, in some cases, prevent stress corrosion
cracking.
• Column and micro jacketing for repair and rehabilitation
• Column Jacketing is one of the techniques used to improve or restore the capacity of
reinforced concrete columns.
• Micro concrete Jacketing is a technique used to increase the strength of beam-columns of
existing structures.
• The important objective of column and beam jacketing is to increase the seismic capacity
of the moment-resisting framed structures.
• Jacketing is particularly used for the repair of deteriorated columns, piers, and piles and
may easily be employed in underwater applications. The method is applicable for
protecting concrete, steel, and timber sections against further deterioration and for
strengthening. Repair of damages of reinforced concrete like column, beam, wall etc.
Jacking of RCC columns to increase load taking capacity.
• Patch repair and rehabilitation
• This is the most common technique to repair corrosion damage in RC
structures.
• For a patch repair, the concrete cover is typically removed to approximately
25 mm past the steel bars (which are then cleaned of corrosion products)
and a repair material is installed.
• For a structure under repairs steel is usually affected by corrosion; loose rust
scales are removed preferably all around the bar using abrasive tools or
sandblasting and stabilized for rust formed with suitable rust convertors;
then a protective coating is applied over the rebars such as alkaline cement
polymeric coat, epoxy phenolic coat or zinc-rich paint, etc.
• Corrosion repair and rehabilitation of steel structures
• Structural steel will not corrode until it is immersed/wetted by an electrolytic solution and
gets electrically connected to another metal or alloy having a more positive electric
potential.
• Thus elimination of electrolyte itself can be effective for corrosion prevention.
• The durability of the steel-concrete slab is adversely affected by the corrosion of the
reinforcements.
• In a sound concrete, the pH value of the cement paste is about 12-13, offering protection
to steel by the formation of a thin layer of bonded and insoluble oxide, which stops the
reaction of oxidation. The corrosion is possible with a lower pH of cement paste, in the
range of 8 to 9. The pH lowering is often created by the carbonation, the ingression of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the concrete. Also, the ingression of chlorides
and Nacl existing in a marine environment greatly accelerates the corrosion rate.
• TMT bars, as well as CRS grades containing small percentages of Cu and Cr and these bars,
have 1.5 – 1.9 times better corrosion resistance than that of CTD bars. Similarly, Stainless
steel bars/galvanized bars have also been developed for use in hostile environments.
• It can be used in combination with carbon steel, for example, in the repair/renovation of
structures, where it will provide enhanced durability over repair using carbon steel. The
use of all these grades will enhance the durability of reinforced concrete structures.
• Ground-penetrating radar for repair and rehabilitation
• Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface.
• This nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band (UHF/VHF frequencies)
of the radio spectrum and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures.
• GPR can have applications in a variety of media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh water, pavements and
structures. In the right conditions, practitioners can use GPR to detect subsurface objects, changes in
material properties, and voids and cracks
• GPR has many applications in several fields. Engineering applications include nondestructive testing (NDT) of
structures and pavements, locating buried structures and utility lines, and studying soils and bedrock.
• In environmental remediation, GPR is used to define landfills, contaminant plumes, and other remediation
sites, while in archaeology it is used for mapping archaeological features and cemeteries. GPR is used in law
enforcement for locating clandestine graves and buried evidence. Military uses include detection of mines,
unexploded ordnance, and tunnels. Borehole radars utilizing GPR are used to map the structures from a
borehole in underground mining applications. Modern directional borehole radar systems can produce
three-dimensional images from measurements in a single borehole.
• Corrosion Monitoring for repair and rehabilitation
• Corrosion monitoring techniques can be classified into different groups according to various
criteria, for example, direct or indirect, intrusive or non-intrusive, on-line or off-line, etc.
• If the monitoring technique measures a direct result of corrosion, it is direct, otherwise, it is
indirect.
• Corrosion coupons, electrical resistance (ER), and linear polarization resistance (LPR) are typical
examples of direct techniques.
• Indirect techniques measure an outcome of the corrosion process, examples including ultrasonics
and radiography.
• If a monitoring technique requires entry into the process stream, it is intrusive, otherwise, it is
non-intrusive.
• Corrosion coupons, ER, and LPR can be classified as intrusive since access to the process stream is
required for these probes. External hydrogen flux probes, handheld ultrasonic probes, magnetic
flux leakage probes, etc. can be classified into non-intrusive techniques.
• Non-destructive testing (NDT) for repair and rehabilitation
• Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a testing and analysis technique used by
industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component, structure, or
system for characteristic differences or welding defects and discontinuities
without causing damage to the original part.
• NDT also is known as non-destructive examination (NDE), nondestructive
inspection (NDI) and non-destructive evaluation (NDE).
• Non-destructive testing can be applied to each stage of an item’s
construction.
• The materials and welds can be examined using NDT and either accepted,
rejected or repaired.
• NDT techniques can then be used to monitor the integrity of the item or
structure throughout its design life.
• Expansion joint installation for repair and rehabilitation
• Expansion joints allow for expansion and shrinkage of blocks of
concrete.
• These are caused by internal expansion, caused by thermal variations,
load fluctuations, or movements of the concrete mass.
• Expansion Joints are to permit the separate segments of the
structural frame to expand and contract in response to temperature
changes without adversely affecting the structural integrity or
serviceability.
• But with the use and deterioration of the structure, these joints at
times become clogged and damaged areas become a source of
leakage.
 Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual NDT (VT)
• Ultrasonic NDT (UT)
• Radiography NDT (RT)
• Eddy Current NDT (ET)
• Magnetic Particle NDT (MT)
• Acoustic Emission NDT (AE)
• Dye Penetrant NDT (PT)
• Leak Testing (LT)
• VISUAL TESTING (VT): Visual Non-Destructive Testing is the act of collecting
visual data on the status of a material. Visual Testing is the most basic way
to examine a material or object without altering it in any way.

• Visual Testing can be done with the naked eye, by inspectors visually
reviewing a material or asset.
• For indoor Visual Testing, inspectors use flashlights to add depth to the
object being examined.
• Visual Testing can also be done with an RVI (Remote Visual Inspection) tool,
like an inspection camera. To get the camera in place, NDT inspectors may
use a robot or drone, or may simply hang it from a rope.
• ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT): Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is the process
of transmitting high-frequency sound waves into a material in order to identify
changes in the material’s properties.
• In general, Ultrasonic Testing uses sound waves to detect defects or imperfections
on the surface of a material created.
• One of the most common Ultrasonic Testing methods is the pulse echo. With this
technique, inspectors introduce sounds into a material and measure the echos
(or sound reflections) produced by imperfections on the surface of the material
as they are returned to a receiver.
Here are some other types of Ultrasonic Testing:
• Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)
• Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT)
• Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
• RADIOGRAPHY TESTING (RT): Radiography Non-Destructive Testing is
the act of using gamma- or X-radiation on materials to identify
imperfections.
• Radiography Testing directs radiation from a radioactive isotope or an
X-ray generator through the material being tested and onto a film or
some other kind of detector.
• The readings from the detector create a shadowgraph, which reveals
the underlying aspects of the inspected material.
• Radiography Testing can uncover aspects of a material that can be
hard to detect with the naked eye, such as alterations to its density.
• EDDY CURRENT (ELECTROMAGNETIC) TESTING (ET): Eddy Current
Non-Destructive Testing is a type of electromagnetic testing that uses
measurements of the strength of electrical currents (also called eddy
currents) in a magnetic field surrounding a material in order to make
determinations about the material, which may include the locations
of defects.
• To conduct Eddy Current Testing, inspectors examine the flow of eddy
currents in the magnetic field surrounding a conductive material to
identify interruptions caused by defects or imperfections in the
material.
• MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI): Magnetic Particle Non-
Destructive Testing is the act of identifying imperfections in a material by
examining disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field within the material.
• To use Magnetic Particle Inspection, inspectors first induce a magnetic field
in a material that is highly susceptible to magnetization.
• After inducing the magnetic field, the surface of the material is then
covered with iron particles, which reveal disruptions in the flow of the
magnetic field.
• These disruptions create visual indicators for the locations of imperfections
within the material.
• ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING (AE): Acoustic Emission Non-
Destructive Testing is the act of using acoustic emissions to identify
possible defects and imperfections in a material.
• Inspectors conducting Acoustic Emission Tests are examining
materials for bursts of acoustic energy, also called acoustic emissions,
which are caused by defects in the material.
• Intensity, location, and arrival time can be examined to reveal
information about possible defects within the material.
• DYE PENETRANT TESTING (PT): Dye Penetrant Penetrant Non-Destructive
Testing (also called Liquid Penetrant Testing) refers to the process of using a
liquid to coat a material and then looking for breaks in the liquid to identify
imperfections in the material.
• Inspectors conducting a Penetrant Test will first coat the material being
tested with a solution that contains a visible or fluorescent dye.
• Inspectors then remove any extra solution from the material’s surface
while leaving the solution in defects that “break” the material’s surface.
• After this, inspectors use a developer to draw the solution out of the
defects, then use ultraviolet light to reveal imperfections (for fluorescent
dyes). For regular dyes, the color shows in the contrast between the
penetrant and the developer.
• LEAK TESTING (LT): Leak Non-Destructive Testing refers to the process
of studying leaks in a vessel or structure in order to identify defects in
it.
• Inspectors can detect leaks within a vessel using measurements taken
with a pressure gauge, soap-bubble tests, or electronic listening
devices, among others.
Quality assurance for concrete construction
• Quality control and quality assurance in concrete repair works are essential to
regain lost strength in concrete due to cracks or other damages. Concrete repairs
are required when structural members get damaged.
• The reason for damages can be over-stressing, poor construction practices,
environmental exposures, chemical attacks or the age of concrete member etc.
• Quality assurance is a method for the proper monitoring and evaluation of
different aspects of repair work to make sure that standards of quality are met.
Quality control is inspection and tests set to confirm that the materials used and
repair technique meet project specification.
• The concrete repair involves replacing, restoring or renewing of old or damaged
concrete from existing structural member. The need for repair can vary from time
to time depending on structural requirement or type of damages in the structural
member.
 Quality Control and Quality Assurance of Concrete
Repair
• Concrete Repair Procedure
• Concrete repair involves several steps which are presented below. It is
highly crucial to consider quality control and quality assurance in each
step in order to achieve successful concrete repair.
• Determining the cause of damage
• Evaluation of damage to identify need and method of concrete repair
• Preparation of damaged structural member
• Application of repair method selected
• Curing of repaired concrete member.
• Inadequate workmanship, procedures or materials in concrete repairs
may result in poor repair and may fail during occupancy involving
significant cost.
• Proper attention to and implementation of each step in the repair
process is critical to successful application of repair technique.
• Materials for Concrete Repairs
• The first step is ensuring that the contractor is using approved materials.
• The selection of repair materials for concrete should be of high quality and as per the
specifications requirements as per the need and type of repair method selected.
• Testing of repair materials should be done to ensure its quality and suitability for the
given repair method.
• Any materials procured from vendors should have its manufacturers test certificate and
should be used only as per manufacturer's specifications and approved methods.
• Suitability of materials for type of damage should be ensured as this may lead to high
cost and failure of repair, if the materials used are unsuitable.
• Care should be taken during mixing, proportioning, handling and placement of repair
materials to ensure good concrete repair quality control.
• Workmanship in Concrete Repairs
• Quality and durability of concrete repairs depend on the workmanship
during repair process.
• The aim of repair is to provide strength and durability of structural member
comparable to its original or designed strength.
• For this, the workmen involved in repair process should have sufficient
knowledge, skills and training to perform the concrete repair work.
• Work carried out should be done in a way that the repaired concrete is well
bonded with existing concrete and durability requirement is met.
• All the process should be carefully supervised by experienced personnel.
Well trained, competent workmen are particularly essential when epoxy,
polyurethane, or other resinous materials are used in repair of concrete.
• Concrete Repair Procedures
• Selection of right procedures for concrete repair is essential to ensure repair quality
control and techniques are carefully performed.
• Wrong or poor repair procedure and workmanship may lead to ineffective concrete
repairs.
• Repairs can be on old concrete surface or new concrete just after stripping of formwork.
• For new concrete surface, the repairs are easy and bond between repair concrete
existing concrete surfaces will be same as the original construction work.
• One of the common problems that leads to premature failure of repairs is improper
curing, especially cementitious materials which cause early cracking.
• Recommended curing method is to leave the forms in place when using form-and-pour
applications, ponding for small repairs, continuous moist curing, and curing membranes.