CHM 101 LECTURE NOTE

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CREDIT UNIT: 02

COURSE LECTURERS: B. A. ISAFIADE and C.C. OGBONNA

COURSE OUTLINE
  Atoms, molecules, element, compounds and chemical reactions
 Modern electronic theory of atoms
 Electronic configuration, periodicity and building up of the periodic table
 Hybridization and shapes of simple molecules
 Valence forces and structure of solids
 Chemical equations and stoichiometry, chemical bonding and intermolecular forces and
kinetic theory of matter
 Elementary thermochemistry, rates of reaction, equilibrium and thermodynamics
 Acids, bases and salts
 Properties of gases
 Redox reactions and introduction to electrochemistry
 Radioactivity

RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS/ REFERENCES

1. Advanced Chemistry by Philip Mathew
2. A level Chemistry by E. M Ramsden
3. Inorganic Chemistry by Shriver and Atkins
4. Chemistry Matters by Tan Yin Toon, John Saddler
5. Cambridge International As and A level Chemistry by P. Cann & P. Hughes.
 CHM 101 LECTURE NOTE
ELEMENTS
 Elements contain just one sort of atom. Although the atoms of a particular element may
differ slightly in mass (Isotope), they all have identical chemical reactions.
 An element is a pure substance that cannot be split up into two or more simpler substance
by chemical processes or by electricity. For example, copper cannot be split into simpler
substances. Therefore, copper is an element. Sugar is not an element because it can be
broken down into water and carbon dioxides. Even water and carbondioxide is not an
element. Water can be broken down by electricity to give the elements hydrogen and
oxygen as well as CO2 (either by electrochemical splitting, photocatalytic, thermolysis,
etc.). Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are elements because they cannot be further broken
down into simpler substances.
 Note: Photocatalysts are materials that change the rate of a chemical reaction on
exposure to light the process is known as photocatalysis.
 Chemical Symbols of element: Each elements has a unique symbols consisting of one or
two letter and the first letter capitalized e.g calcium chemical symbol is Ca, Hydrogen – H,
Iron – Fe .
 Classification of elements has metals, metalloids and non-metals: iron is a metal, oxygen
is a non-metals and silicon a metalloid. The differences in the physical properties are show
below
 Elements that have both properties of metals and non-metals are referred to as metalloid,
e.g., silicon, germanium, boron and arsenic.

 Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemical properties of that
element.
 Sub-atomic particles are
i. Electron discovered by J. J Thompson. The electron has a negative charge, it mass
is very small compared to that of an atom. In his experiment, cathode rays are
electrons

ii. Rutherford demonstrated that atom has at its center a very small, positively charged
nucleus. Nucleon number also known as mass number is the sum of proton and
neutron in a nucleus. The proton has a positive charge. The charge on proton is
equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to charge on an electron.

iii. The atomic number of an element equals the number of protons in its nucleus and
it distinguishes that element from all others
iv. Rutherford introduced the term neutron to explain the mass of the nucleus. But
experimental evidence for the neutron was done in 1932, when James Chadwick
bombarded the element beryllium with alpha particles. This bombardment
produced a highly penetrating stream of particles, which could pass through many
centimeters of solid lead and which was not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
 He decided the particle consist of almost the same mass as protons but with no
charge.
v. Subsequently, the American scientist Robert Millikan (1868–1953) carried out a
series of experiments using electrically charged oil droplets, which allowed him to
calculate the charge on a single electron. With this information and Thompson’s
mass-to-charge ratio, Millikan determined the mass of an electron:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Mass = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

vi. The behavior of protons, neutrons and electron in an electric field

 The properties of the three sub-atomic particles

Property Electron Proton Neutron
Electrical charge/coulombs -1.6 x 10-19 +1.6 x 10-19 0
Charge (relative to that of the proton -1 +1 0
Mass/g 9.11 x 10-28 1.673 x 10-24 1.675 x 10-24
Mass/amu 5.485 x 10-4 1.007 1.009

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

 Atom is small and very light. Their masses range from 1 x 10-24g to 1 x 10-22g. The most
accurate way of measuring the relative masses of atom is by using a mass spectrometry.
 Atomic masses of all elements were compared with the mass of an atom of hydrogen
because hydrogen is the lightest element so the relative atomic masses of all other elements
are greater than 1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
Relative atomic mass of element E = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

 Because of the existence of isotopes and the central importance of carbon in the masses of
organic compounds, the modern definition is
 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
Relative atomic mass of element E = 1⁄
12 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 12𝐶
 The difference between the two definition is negligible, since a carbon-12 atom has almost
exactly 12 times the average mass of a hydrogen atom (11.91:1 ratio), relative atomic mass
is given the symbol Ar. Since it is the ration of two masses , it is a dimensionless quantity
– it has no units
 The masses of atoms and sub-atomic particles are often expressed in atomic mass units.
An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12. It has
the value of 1.6606 x 10-23g.
 The unit of amount is the mole (mol) and is defined in terms of grams as: ‘one mole of an
element is the amount that contains the same number of atoms as there are in 12.000g of
carbon – 12. The mass of one mole of an element is called its molar mass (M), it is
numerically equal to its relative atomic mass, Ar but given in grams per mole
Relative atomic mass of carbon = 12.0
Molar mass of carbon = 12.0gmol-1
 Hence there is a relationship between the mass (m) of an element and the number of moles
(n) it contains:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑚)
Amount (in moles) = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀)
 One mole of an element contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms known as Avogadro’s constant, L. the
relationship between the number of moles in a sampe of an element and the number of
atoms it contains is as follows
Number of atoms = L x number of moles
Examples: How many hydrogen atoms are there in 1.5 mol of hydrogen atoms?
Answer
L = 6.022 x 1023mol-1 and n =1.5 mol
N = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1 x 1.5 mol
= 9.0 x 1023
Try this: Calculate the amount of substance (in moles) in
i. A sample of uranium that contains 1.o x 1025 atoms
ii. A sample of fluorine that contains 5 x 1021
COMPOUND
 Compounds are made up of many identical units. These units are smallest entities that still
retain the chemical properties of the compound. They are called molecules or ions,
depending on how the substance is bonded together. Just as molecules contain two or more
atoms bound together. Ions on the other hand are atoms, or groups of atoms that carry an
electrical charge.
 MOLECULE
 A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically joined together for
example, hydrogen molecule, H2 is the molecular formula of hydrogen, O3 is the molecular
formula of ozone.
RULES FOR WRITING ATOMIC SYMBOLS AND FORMULAE
 Consider the following rules when writing the atomic symbols and formulae of compound
i. The symbol for an element with one letter is written in capital letter i.e hydrogen is
H
ii. The symbol for an element with two letter; the first letter is capitalized and the other
small letter i.e helium is He
iii. The symbol for cobalt is Co (not CO – this is the formula of carbon monoxide,
which contains one carbon and one oxygen atoms
iv. The formula of copper oxide is CuO (one copper and one oxygen atoms combined)
v. The formula of water is H2O ( two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms combined)
vi. The formula of phosphoric(v) acid H3PO4 (three hydrogen, one phosphorus, and
four oxygen atoms combined)
vii. The formula of sodium nitrate is NaNO3 (one sodium ion Na+ combined with one
nitrate ion NO3-, which consists of one nitrogen and three oxygen atoms combined)
viii. The calcium nitrate formula is Ca(NO3)2 ( one calcium ion Ca2+ combined with two
nitrate ions)
a. Note: formulae of many ionic compounds can be predicted if the valencies of
the ions are known. Similarly, the formulae of several of the simpler covalent
(molecular) compounds can be predicted if the covalencies of the constituent
atom are known
b. The oxygen atom is usually written at the end of the formula

MIXTURES
 Mixtures are formed when two substances are added together without chemical bonds
being formed. Examples of mixtures include muddy water and air. Air is made up of gases
such as nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), trace gases including water vapor
and carbon dioxide, and other elements.
 Mixture can be made up of elements and compounds. The components of a mixture are not
fixed, they can be present in any ratio.
 Differences between mixture and compound
Mixture Compound
Separation The components of a mixture can The elements in a compound
be separated by physical methods, can only be separated chemical
e.g. filtration, distillation or reactions or by using electricity
chromatography
Properties The chemical properties of a The physical and chemical
mixture are the same as those of its properties of a compound are
components
 different from those of the
elements in the compound
Energy No chemical reaction takes place A chemical reaction takes place
change when a mixture is formed – usually when a compound is formed –
there is little or no energy change usually there is an energy
change e.g. the reactants get hot
Composition The components of a mixture can The elements in a compound
be mixed in any proportion are always combined in a fixed
proportion (by mass)

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

 The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is calculated by adding together the
relative atomic masses (Ar) of all the elements present in one molecule of the compound.
It has no unit. For example, ethanol, C2H6O, relative molecular mass is 46.0 and the molar
mass is 46.0 gmol-1
Worked sample: How many moles are there in 60 g of glucose?
Answer
𝑚
n=𝑀 m = 60 g, M = 180 gmol-1
60𝑔
n = 180 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
= 0.33 mol
Solve this:
a. Calculate the relative formula mass of each of the following compounds:
i. Iron(ii) sulfate, FeSO4
ii. Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2
iii. Ethanoic acid, C2H4O2
iv. Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
v. The complex with the formula Na3Fe(C2O4)3
b. How many moles of substance are there in each of the following samples?
i. 20g of magnesium oxide, MgO
ii. 40g of methane, CH4
iii. 80g of cyclopropene, C3H4
iv. 100g of sodium dichromate(vi), Na2Cr2O7
c. What is the mass of each of the following samples?
i. 1.5 moles of magnesium sulfate, MgSO4
ii. 0.333 mole of aluminium chloride, AlCl3

EMPERICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

 The empirical formula is the simplest formula that shows the relative number of atoms of
each element present in a compound. The molecular formula tells us the actual number of
atoms of each element present in a molecule of the compound.
Example: calculate the empirical formula of an oxide of iron that contains 70% Fe by
mass.
 Answer
70 30
Fe: 56 = 1.25 O: 16 = 1.875
1.25 1.875
Fe: 1.25 = 1.00 O: = 1.50
1.25
Multiply both number 2: Fe = 2, O = 3
Therefore the empirical formula is Fe2O3

CHEMICAL REACTION
 A chemical equation represents what happens during a chemical reaction. A key feature of
chemical reaction is that they proceed with no measurable change in mass at all. Evolution
of heat, flashes of light, changes of color, noise, and evolution of gases can be seen taking
place.
 In a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of all the various products is always found
to be equal to the sum of the masses of the reactants. This concept obey the law of
conservation of mass.
 Many chemical reactions are carried out in solution, hence the relationship between moles
and concentration. Concentrations of solution are normally stated in units of moles per
cubic decimeter (moldm-3) and mathematically written has:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)
Concentrations = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3 )

 Concentration of solution can also be expressed in term of the mass of the substance and
has a units of gram per cubic decimeter (gdm-3)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠)
Concentration =𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3 )
 There are many different classification of chemical reactions but our focus will be on the
following types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement.
Some of these reactions involve changes in the oxidation numbers of the reactants and
products, referred to as oxidation-reduction, or ‘redox’ reaction.

Figure showing the Classification of Chemical Reaction

i. Combination reaction: 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ---- 2NaCl(s)
ii. Decomposition reaction: CaCO3(s) ----- CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 iii. In single-replacement reaction (known as single-displacement reaction) an element
and a compound will react so that their elements are switched. Metals will replace
metals and non-metals will typically replace non-metals in compound: Zn(s) +
CuCl2(s) ------ ZnCl2(s) + Cu(s)
iv. A double-replacement reaction (or double-displacement) two ionic compounds in
aqueous solution exchange anions and form two new compounds. For a chemical
reaction to occur in double-replacement reaction, one of the new compounds that
is formed must be insoluble in solvent, forming a solid precipitate. If otherwise, no
reaction has occurred. Example
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ---- BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)
v. Heat can be used to form compounds and can also be used to break down
compounds into elements or simpler compounds. Such a chemical reaction is called
thermal decomposition.

MODERN ELECTRONIC THEORY OF ATOM

 Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford proposed the Rutherford-Bohr model of atom, often
simply called the Bohr model, where electrons occupy orbits around the nucleus. This
explained the features of the emission spectrum of hydrogen
 Bohr model proposes the following about hydrogen atom –
a. the electron in a hydrogen atom travels around the nucleus in a circular orbit
b. Lowest energy, E1 is called ground state. If electron were given extra energy and
move from low to high that is called excited state. Change in energy level is often
referred to as transition. Energy is usually given out as light.
ΔE = hf
c. The energies of electrons in atoms are quantized, i.e. electrons exist in a set of energy
level. The formula for the energy level is given as
−℮4 𝑚
En = 8𝜀2 ℎ2 𝑛𝑒2 ……. (1)
0
Where n = principal quantum number, me = mass of the electron, e =
magnitude of its charge, h = Planck constant, 𝜀0 = permittivity of the free
space, and is a measure of how easy it is for electromagnetic radiation to
pass through it.
d. The values of quantities like –e = 1.602 x 10-19 C, h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js and 𝜀0 = 8.854
x 10-12 C2N-1m-1, me 9.109 x 10-31 kg when substituted into eqn (1), then,
−𝑘
En = ….. (2)
𝑛2
Where k = 2.179 x 10-18 J
Example: how much energy would be needed to make an electron move from the ground
state (n=1) of the hydrogen atom to the next level, with n=2?
 Answer
−𝑘 −𝑘 3𝑘
Using equation 2, E2 – E1 = − =
22 12 4
3
E2 – E1 = 4 (2.179 𝑥 10−18 𝐽) = 1.634 𝑥 10−18 𝐽

 Spectrum consist of a series of lines, and it is called a line spectrum. The wavelength of
the lines in the spectrum can be calculated using Johannes Balmer’s formula and provided
that the number ‘m’ took the series of whole number values 3, 4, 5, ….(n = 1, 2. n values
>2 = m, n is principal quantum number)
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 (22 − )….(3)
𝜆 𝑚2

RH is called Rydberg constant and has value of 1.0967 x 107 m-1

 Bohr’s explanation of Balmer’s formula
−𝑘
En = 𝑛2
−𝑘
For the second energy level, n = 2; En = 22
−𝑘
The energy level of m > n = 2, En = 𝑚2
−𝑘 (−𝑘) 1 1
ΔΕ = Ε𝑚 − Ε2 = − = 𝑘 (22 − )…..(4)
𝑚2 22 𝑚2
This ΔE is given out as light. The energy of light of frequency f is
hf = energy lost (ΔE) ….(5)
h is Planck constant
Joining eqn (4) and (5), we have
1 1
hf = 𝑘 (22 − 𝑚2 )
𝑘 1 1
f = ℎ (22 − ) …. (6)
𝑚2

Recall that, the speed of light, c, is given by multiplying the frequency, f, by the
wavelength, 𝜆
c = f 𝜆….(7)
Rearrange eqn (7),
1 f
= ….(8)
𝜆 𝑐

substitute frequency, f, in eqn (6) to eqn (8)

1 𝑘 1 1
= (22 − )….(9)
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝑚2
𝑘
If ℎ𝑐 is the same as the Rydberg constant, RH, then this is the same as Balmer’s
formula.
  Louis de Broglie suggested that any particle, not only photons, travelling with a linear
momentum, mv (m = mass and v = speed of the particle) should have in some sense a
wavelength given by what is now called the de Broglie relation and it describe the wave-
particle duality of an electron considered as a particle.
ℎ
𝑚𝑣 = ….(10)
𝜆
 Erwin Schrodinger, 1926, proposed an equation for finding the wavefunction of any
system. The time independent Schrodinger equation for a particle of mass m moving in one
dimension with energy E in a system that does not change with time (for instance, its
volume remains constant) is given as
−ℎ2 𝛿 2 𝑊
+ 𝑉(𝑥)𝑊 = 𝐸𝑊… (11) (different textbook with different
2𝑚 𝛿𝑥 2
format of written this equation) OR
−ℎ2 𝛿2 𝑊 𝛿2 𝑊 𝛿2 𝑊
( + + ) + 𝑉𝑊 = 𝐸𝑊…..(11)
8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2

Where h = h/2π is a modification of Planck’s constant used in quantum mechanics; V(x) is

the potential energy of the particle at x. E is the total energy (sum of potential and kinetic energies),
𝛿2 𝑊
the 2𝑚𝛿𝑥 2 must be related to the kinetic energy of the particle.

 The Schrodinger equation can be regarded as a fundamental postulate of quantum

mechanics, but also can show in the case of a free particle that it is consistent with the de
Broglie relation.

QUANTUM NUMBERS
 Quantum numbers: each orbital in an atom has three quantum number n, l, m arising from
quantized energy (degeneracy)
i. Principal quantum number, n: govern the orbital energy. Orbitals with the same
energy are said to be degenerate. There are n2 degenerate orbitals e.g. when n =1
the value of n2 is 1, i. e. there is only one orbital with energy E1. When n = 2, n2 is
4. This means there are 4 degenerate orbitals with energy E2
ii. Azimuthal quantum number, l: it govern the orbital shape and usually given a
letter designation as
l = 0 s orbital
l =1 p orbital
l =2 d orbital
l = 3 f orbital
iii. Azimuthal is also related to principal quantum number. When n = 1, there is only
one value for L, I.E, L = 0 (1S); N = 2, L = 0 (2S) OR 1 (2P); N = 3, L = 0 (3S), 1
(3P) OR 2(3D). HENCE L TAKES ANY POSITIVE VALUE FROM 0 TO N-1.
Note: 1p and 1d are not allowed according to this rule
iv. Magnetic quantum number, m: it describe the energy of orbitals in magnetic or
electric fields. It also describe the orientation of the orbitals. It may have any
positive integer –L, -L + 1, … 0 …, L – 1, 1.
e.g for L = 1 ML = -1, 0, 1 OR THREE TYPE OF P ORBITALS
v. The fourth quantum number is spin quantum number which can either be +1/2 or
-1/2
Example: derive a set of quantum number for an atomic orbital with n = 3
Answer
L = 0 to (n-1) so 0, 1 or 2 (corresponding to an s, p and d orbital)
Determine all values of ml, ml = -L, -L + 1, ... L ... L – 1
L = 0, ml = 0
L = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1
L = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

SUBSHELLS AND SHAPES OF ORBITA

i. The first shell – s orbital is spherically symmetrical. Meaning that the probability
of finding the electron at a given distance from the nucleus is the same no matter
what direction from the nucleus is chosen. This orbital is called the 1s orbital.
ii. The second shell – s and p orbitals: contain four orbitals in the second shell. Just
like 1s orbital, 2s orbital is spherically symmetrical. The other three second-shell
orbitals point along the three mutually perpendicular x-, y-, and z- axes and they
are 2p orbitals (2px, 2py, 2pz ). The 2p’s orbitals do not overlap with one another.
2s and 2p are of slightly different energies, they make up the two subshells in the
second shell of orbitals.

The shape of a the 2s orbital and b the three 2p orbitals

iii. The third shell – s, p and d orbitals: from n2 formula we can predict that nine orbitals
will be in the third shell. Just like 1s and 2s orbitals, 3s orbital is spherically
symmetrical. Three 3p orbitals, the 3px, 3py, and 3pz orbitals, each have two lobes,
pointing along the axes in a similar fashion to the 2p orbitals. The five 3d orbitals
shapes can best be described as – four of these orbitals (3dxy, 3dxz, 3dyz, 3dx2-y2)
each consist of four lobes in the same plane as one another, and pointing mutually
at right angles, whereas the fifth (3dz2) is best represented as a two-lobed orbital
surrounded by a ‘doughnut’ of electron density around its middle. Third shell
consist of three subshells – 3s, 3p, and 3d subshells.
 The shapes of the five 3d orbitals
iv. The fourth shell – s, p, d and f orbitals: in 4th shell there are 16 orbitals – one 4s
orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals. Each of the 4f
orbitals consist of many lobes pointing away from one another as shown below.

The shape of one 4f orbital there are eight lobes pointing out from the centre

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 Electronic configuration refers to the way in which atom’s electron are arranged in its
atomic orbitals. It is also known as electronic structure.
 The basic rules guiding electronic structure includes:
i. Aufbau (build-up) principle states that electrons fill atomic orbitals in order of
increasing energy, subject to the Pauli exclusion principle
ii. The Pauli Exclusion Principle: this principle, introduced by Wolfgang Pauli, allows
no more than two electrons to occupy any orbital. For example, the 1s orbital may
contain one or two electron only. The three orbitals (2px, 2py, 2pz) in the 2p subshell
may contain a total of up to six electrons. Two electrons occupying the same orbital
must have paired (opposite) spins.
iii. Hund’s rule: the orbital will first fill with one electron each with parallel spins
before a second electron is added with the paired (opposite) spin
 The electronic configuration of atoms and ions can be represented in a variety of ways.
One of the ways is an ‘electrons-in-boxes’ diagram. For example, sulphur (proton number
16) electronic configuration is shown below.

PERIODICITY AND BUILDING UP OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

 In 1870, Russian scientist, Dimitri Mendeleev arranged the 62 known elements by referring
to their atomic masses, left gaps in his table for elements which were unknown at that time,
and successfully predicted the existence of the elements scandium, gallium and
germanium, all of which were discovered a few years later. Mendeleyev’s periodic law
state that ‘elements, if arranged according to their atomic masses, show an evident
periodicity of properties.’
 In 1913, the English Physicist Henry Moseley studied the X-ray spectra of many elements.
He proposed that atomic number is a more fundamental property of an element than its
atomic weight. This observation led to the development of modem periodic law which state
that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers. This means that if elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
numbers they shows periodicity.
 Periodicity refers to a repeating trend in properties of the elements. Some of these
properties include:
a. Electron configuration: across period (left to right) each period starts with an electron
in a new highest energy shell. For example, across period 2, the 2s sub-shell fills with
two electrons, followed by the 2p sub-shell with six electron. This same patter of filling
is repeated for the 3s and 3p sub-shells across period 3 as well as period 4 etc. Trend
 down the group is such that elements in each group have the same number of electrons
in their outer shell.
b. Ionization energy (I.E.): the first ionization energy is the energy required to remove
one electron from gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous ions. E.g.
Na(g) ------ Na+(g) + e- 1st I.E. = +496 KJmol-1
M(g) ---------- M(+)(g) + e-, H = I1 kJmol-1
This is actually the first ionisation energy, for in some cases, the ion formed is
capable of losing further electron(s) e.g.
M+ -------- M2+(g) + e-, H = I2 kJmol-1
M2+ --------- M3+(g) + e-, H = I3 kJmol-1
Hence I3>I2>I1 since the subsequent electrons are removed from positively charged
species (Table below). Metals have low ionisation energies, while non-metals have
high ionisation energies. Ionisation energies increase across the period because of
increasing nuclear charge, but decrease down the group because of increasing distance
of the electron from nucleus. This decrease is related to the change from non-metallic
to metallic character. The sudden rise in ionisation energies for Be and N of period 2
and Mg and P of period of 3 are due to extra stability of filled s-orbital (ns2) and half-
filled p-orbital (np3) respectively. Also, there is a large difference in energy to attain a
noble gas configuration and that to remove an electron from a noble gas configuration
e.g.
Table: Successive Ionization Energies for some Elements (Periods 2 and 3)

Figure of 1st Ionization Energies (KJmol-1) of First Three Periods

 Several factors influence the ionisation energy of the elements:
1. Nuclear charge: As the nuclear charge increases, the ionisation energy increases
proportionally. This is owing to the fact that, as nuclear charge increases, the electrons
in the outer shell become more tightly bound to the nucleus, requiring more energy to
extricate an electron from the atom than previously existed. For example, as we walk
along a period from left to right, the ionisation enthalpy increases as a result of the
increased nuclear charge.

2. Atomic size or radius: As the atomic size or radius grows, the ionisation energy
falls. The attractive force on the outer electron reduces as the distance between the outer
electrons and the nucleus grows with the growth in atomic radius.
3. The shielding or screening action of electrons in the inner shell: Ionisation
enthalpy reduces as the shielding effect of the inner electrons, also known as the
screening effect, grows stronger. As a result, the nucleus’s force of attraction for the
electrons in the valence shell reduces, and as a result, the ionisation enthalpy lowers.
4. The influence of the electrons’ arrangement: If an atom’s orbitals are exactly half
filled or completely filled, the arrangement is more stable than expected; as a result,
removing an electron from such an atom requires more energy than would be expected.
Example: Be (1s2,2s2) has a greater ionisation enthalpy than B (1s2,2s2,2p1), and
N(1s2,2s2,2p6x,2p1y2p1z) has higher ionisation enthalpy than O. For example, O has
a higher ionisation enthalpy than Be (1s2,2s2) (1s2,2s22p2x,2p1y,2p1z) Overall, when
we move from left to right in a period, the ionisation enthalpy increases with rising
atomic numbers, which is consistent with the trend of the period.

As we proceed along a group of elements from one element to the next, the ionisation
enthalpies continue to decrease on a regular basis.
c. Electronegativity: It is a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract
shared pair of electrons to itself. The highest values are found with the halogens, while
the metals have the least values. Electronegativity increases fairly regularly across the
period as the effective nuclear charge of the atom increases, but decreases down the
group (Figure below). When a metal combines with a non-metal e.g. sodium and
chlorine, there is a large difference in their electronegativities, hence an ionic bond is
formed, Na+Cl-, but when non-metals combine this difference is low and hence a
 covalent bond is formed e.g. Br and Cl from BrCl. In between these two, we have polar
covalent bond. For example in H2O, O-H bond is polar covalent

Figure: Pauling’s Electronegativity Values (eV)

Electronegativity is a key concept in chemistry that helps predict the nature of chemical
bonds between atoms. Here's how electronegativity influences the type of bond
formed:

Ionic Bonds: When the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is large
(typically greater than 1.7), the more electronegative atom will attract the bonding
electrons more strongly, leading to the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
This results in the formation of ions (cations and anions) and an ionic bond. For
example, in sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium (Na) has low electronegativity and loses
an electron, while chlorine (Cl) has high electronegativity and gains that electron.
Covalent Bonds: When the difference in electronegativity is small (typically less than
1.7), the atoms share electrons more equally, leading to covalent bonds. This can be
further categorized into:
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds (Covalent)): If the difference is negligible (0 to 0.4), the
electrons are shared equally, as seen in diatomic molecules like H₂ or O₂.
Polar Covalent Bonds: If the difference is moderate (0.4 to 1.7), the electrons are
shared unequally, leading to a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative
charge on the other, as seen in water (H₂O).
d. Electron Affinity: This is the energy given out when a neutral gaseous atom forms an
anion
A(g) + e -------- A-(g) ΔH = -EKJmol-1

It is a measure of electron attracting power of an atom. A positive value means that

energy is required to remove an electron from the gaseous anion, while a negative value
means that the gaseous anion spontaneously gives out electron. It is also the energy
absorbed when an anion gives out an electron i.e. ionisation energy of an anion.
A-(g) ------- A(g) + e ΔH = -EKJmol-1
Electron affinity generally increases across the period for s-and p-blocks as the
effective nuclear charge increases, but decreases down the group, typically for the
 halogens (VIIB). For the halogens we have F = -348kJmol-1, Cl = -364kJmol-1, Br =
-342kJmol-1, I = -314kJmol-1 (Figure 4.6). The disparity in the value for fluorine is
because fluorine is a small atom, and having seven electrons already in the valence
shell, any in-coming electron will tend to be repelled, hence the smaller value relative
to that of chlorine

Figure: Electron Affinity for Some Elements (KJmol-1)

e. Atomic Radius: The atomic radius is defined as one-half the distance between the
nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together.

Figure X: The atomic radius (r) of an atom can be defined as one half the distance (d) between two
nuclei in a diatomic molecule.
Atomic radii have been measured for elements. The units for atomic radii are picometers, equal to
10−12 meters. As an example, the internuclear distance between the two hydrogen atoms in an H2
molecule is measured to be 74pm. Therefore, the atomic radius of a hydrogen atom is 742=37pm.
The atomic number increases moving left to right across a period and subsequently so does the
effective nuclear charge. Therefore, moving left to right across a period the nucleus has a greater
pull on the outer electrons and the atomic radii decreases. Moving down a group in the periodic
table, the number of filled electron shells increases. In a group, the valence electrons keep the same
effective nuclear charge, but now the orbitals are farther from the nucleus. Therefore, the nucleus
has less of a pull on the outer electrons and the atomic radii are larger.
We can now use these concept to explain the atomic radius differences of cations and anions. A
cation is an atom that has lost one of its outer electrons. Cations have a smaller radius than the
atom that they were formed from. With the loss of an electron, the positive nuclear charge out
powers the negative charge that the electrons exert. Therefore, the positive nucleus pulls the
electrons tighter and the radius is smaller. An anion is an atom that has gained an outer electron.
Anions have a greater radius than the atom that they were formed from. The gain of an electron
does not alter the nuclear charge, but the addition of an electron causes a decrease in the effective
nuclear charge. Therefore, the electrons are held more loosely and the atomic radius is increased.
In summary
1. Negatively charged ions have bigger ionic radii than the corresponding neutral atoms.
2. Positively charged ions have smaller ionic radii than the corresponding neutral atoms.
Evaluation
Arrange the following elements in terms of increasing atomic radius:
Mg, K, Cl, Cs
A) Cl, Mg, K, Cs
B) Cl, K, Mg, Cs
C) Cs, K, Mg, Cl
D) Mg, K, Cl, Cs
The answer is choice A. Mg and C1are in the same period (Period 3). But C1 is in Group VIIA
and Mg is in Group IIA. So Mg is larger than C1. The next is K which is in period 4, and thus
bigger than both Mg and C1. Finally, Cs which is in period 6 has the largest atomic radius. So in
the increasing order of atomic size is: Cl<Mg<K<Cs.
Metallic Character
The metallic character is used to define the chemical properties that metallic elements have.
Generally, metals tend to lose electrons to form cations. Non metals tend to gain electrons to form
anions. They also have a high oxidation potential therefore they are easily oxidized and are strong
reducing agents. Metals also form basic oxides; the more basic the oxide, the higher the metallic
character.

As you move across the table from left to right, the metallic character decreases, because the
elements easily accept electrons to fill their valance shells. Therefore, these elements take on the
nonmetallic character of forming anions. As you move up the table, the metallic character
decreases, due to the greater pull that the nucleus has on the outer electrons. This greater pull
makes it harder for the atoms to lose electrons and form cations.
Redox Potentials
Oxidation Potential
Oxidation is a reaction that results in the loss of an electron. Oxidation potential follows the same
trends as the ionization energy. That is because the smaller the ionization energy, the easier it is to
remove an electron. (e.g)
K(s) →K++e−
Reduction Potential
Reduction is a reaction that results in the gaining of an electron. Reduction potentials follow the
same trend as the electron affinity. That is because the larger, negative electron affinity, the easier
it is to give an electron. Example of Reduction:
F(s) + e−→F−
 The periodic table contains
i. The vertical columns are called groups and numbered according to IUPAC
recommendation as 1-18. The group contains elements that have similar chemical
properties to each other. For example, group 1 is known as alkali metals, group 2
as alkaline earth metals, group 17 are halogen and group 18 as noble gases.
a. Position of hydrogen in the periodic table: hydrogen is the first element of the
periodic table having atomic number 1. It has electronic configuration of 1s 1.
The dual behavior of hydrogen (i.e as halogen or as alkali metals) is attributed
to its electronic configuration and make it difficult to give a proper place to
hydrogen in the periodic table.
b. Exercise: describe the resemblance of hydrogen with alkalis metals and
halogens.
ii. The horizontal rows are called periods, which are numbered from 1 to 7.
a. There is a connection between the electronic configurations of the element and
the long form of the periodic table. As pointed out earlier, that the principal
quantum number ‘n’ defines the main energy level of the electron and also
called main energy shell. Each period of the periodic table begins with the
filling of new energy shell. In fact, the number of the period also represents the
highest principal quantum number of the elements present in it. The number of
elements in each period is equal to the number of electrons that can be
accommodated in the orbitals belonging to that electron shell.
b. The first period corresponds to the filling of electrons in first energy shell (i.e.,
n = 1). Now this energy level has only one orbital (i.e., n =1) and, therefore, It
can accommodate two electrons. This means that there can be only two
elements in the first period.
 c. The second period starts with the electrons beginning to enter the second energy
shell (n = 2). There are only four orbitals (one 2s and three 2p orbitals) to be
filled which can accommodate eight electrons. Thus, second period has eight
elements in it
d. The third period begins with the electrons entering the third energy shell (n =
3). It may be recalled that out of nine orbitals of this energy level (one s, three
p and five d), the five 3d orbitals have higher energy than 4s orbitals. As such
only four orbitals (one 3s and three 3p) corresponding to n = 3 are filled before
the fourth energy level begins to be formed. Hence. there are only eight
elements in the third period
e. The fourth period corresponds to n = 4, consist of a total of 18 elements, from
potassium to krypton. It starts with the filling of 4s-orbitals (potassium and
calcium), 3d orbitals (scandium to zinc) and 4p (gallium to krypton).
DIVISION OF PERIODIC TABLE

 S – Block elements is where the s orbital are filling

 The p – block orbital is where the p orbital are filling
 The d – block orbital between the s and p blocks is where the d orbitals of the previous
shell are filling

SUMMARY OF THE PERIODICTABLE

The vertical columns of elements represented in the periodic table are called groups, and the
horizontal rows are called periods. There are seven periods in the periodic table. The groups are
usually designated by roman numerals followed by the letter A or B as shown in the periodic table.
The groups IA through VIIA are called the representative elements. These elements have either s
or p orbital valence electrons. The last group in the periodic table is the noble gas group otherwise
known as the zero group. The groups ranging from IB through VIII are called transition metals,
and finally the metals from lanthanum through hafnium and metals from actinium onward are
called the inner transition metals.
Elements in the periodic table can be placed into two broad categories, metals and non-metals.
Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile, and are
moderate to high melting points. In general, non-metals are non-conductors of heat and electricity,
are non-malleable solids, and many are gases at room temperature. Just as shown in the table
above, metals and non-metals on the periodic table are often separated by a stairstep diagonal line,
and several elements near this line are often called metalloids (Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and At).
Metalloids are elements that look like metals and in some ways behave like metals but also have
some nonmetallic properties. The group to the farthest right of the table, is known as the noble
gases. Noble gases are treated as a special group of non-metals.

We will discuss some of these groups.

Group IA
The Group IA contains hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium.
The Group IA elements are also known as alkali metals, with the exception of hydrogen which is
not a metal. Alkali metals are very reactive.
All of them react with water to form alkaline solutions.
2 Na (s) + 2 H20 H2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq)
The reactivity of alkali metals to water increases from top to bottom of the periodic table. For
example, potassium reacts much more rapidly than lithium. They can also form oxides (For
example, lithium can for monoxides such as Li2O.) and a variety of other compounds, since they
arehighly reactive. Alkali metals are good electrical and thermal conductors. All of them have one
valence electron in their outer most shell, which is in the s orbital in the ground state. The Group
IA elements usually exhibit an oxidation state of +l .They have a valence shell configuration of
ns1.
Group IIA
The Group IIA elements are called alkaline earth metals. The alkaline earth metals consist of
beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. Their oxides are basic. They have
a valence shell configuration of ns2, and exhibit an oxidation state of +2. These elements are not
as reactive as alkali metals.
Metallic character decreases from left to right along a period, and increases from top to bottom of
a group.
Group IIIA
The Group IIIA elements consist of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium. They have a
valence shell configuration of ns2, [Link] usually have oxidation states of +l and +3.
Group IVA
The Group IVA is the carbon family. Carbon is the most versatile element, and thus it has its own
separate subject - organic chemistry. Carbon can exist in many different forms by itself such as
graphite and diamond. These forms of carbon are very contrasting in the sense that graphite is
relatively soft whereas diamond is very hard. The Group IVA elements have a valence shell
configuration of ns2, np2.
The carbon family consists of carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead. All these form oxides
which look like CO, (e.g., SiO, PbO,). They also form monoxides. As medical enthusiasts, you
probably have heard of carbon monoxide, and its harmful effects. CO is a colorless and odorless
gas, and it has even higher affinity for hemoglobinthan oxygen in the red blood cells.

Group VA
The Group VA is the nitrogen family. The group consists of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic,
antimony, and bismuth. Nitrogen is a diatomic, colorless, and odorless gas, and is not a very
reactive element. The Group VA elements have a valence shell configuration of ns2, np3.
Group VIA
The Group VIA elements are oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. They have a
valence shell configuration of ns2, [Link] (0,) is a diatomic gas, and it also exists in an
allotropic form called ozone (03). Sulphur forms acidic oxides
Group VIIA
The Group VIIA is more commonly known as the halogen family of elements. They are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. They have an outer configuration of ns2, np5. Halogens
are highly reactive non-metals, and form diatomic molecules. Halogens form hydrogen halides
which are very acidic. These hydrogen halides can dissolve in water to form aqueous acids (e.g.,
HCl).
Fluorine yellow gas Chlorine greenish-yellow gas Bromine reddish brown liauid Iodine - dark
colored solid
Group VIIIA
The elements of the Group VIIIA, otherwise known as noble gases are extremely unreactive. They
are found as non-combined forms in nature. Because of this, they are called inert gases. They have
an outer configuration of ns2np6.
Transition Elements
What are Transition Elements?
Transition elements (also known as transition metals) are elements that have partially filled d
orbitals. IUPAC defines transition elements as an element having a d subshell that is partially filled
with electrons, or an element that has the ability to form stable cations with an incompletely filled
d orbital.

In general, any element which corresponds to the d-block of the modern periodic table (which
consists of groups 3-12) is considered to be a transition element. Even the f-block elements
comprising the lanthanides and the actinides can be considered as transition metals.

However, since the f-block elements have incompletely filled f-orbitals, they are often referred to
as inner transition elements or inner transition metals.
It is important to note that the element’s mercury, cadmium, and zinc are not considered transition
elements because of their electronic configurations, which corresponds to (n-1) d10 ns2.

These elements have completely filled d orbitals in their ground states and even in some of their
oxidation states. One such example is the +2 oxidation state of mercury, which corresponds to an
electronic configuration of (n-1)d10.

Electronic Configuration of Transition Elements

The list of the first two rows of transition elements with their corresponding electronic
configurations is tabulated below. It can be noted that in some of these elements, the configuration
of electrons corresponds to (n-1) d5 ns1 or (n-1) d10 ns1. This is because of the stability provided
by the half-filled or completely filled electron orbitals.
It can be observed that the Aufbau principle is not followed by many transition elements like
chromium. The reason for this is believed to be the relatively low energy gap between the 3d and
4s orbitals, and the 4d and 5s orbitals.
General Properties of Transition Elements
As discussed earlier, the elements zinc, cadmium, and mercury are not considered transition
elements since their electronic configurations are different from other transition metals. However,
the rest of the d-block elements are somewhat similar in properties and this similarity can be
observed along each specific row of the periodic table. These properties of the transition elements
are listed below.
 These elements form coloured compounds and ions. This colour is explained by the d-d
transition of electrons.
 There is a relatively low gap in energy between the possible oxidation states of these
elements. The transition elements, therefore, exhibit many oxidation states.
  Many paramagnetic compounds are formed by these elements, because of the unpaired
electrons in the d orbital.
 A large variety of ligands can bind themselves to these elements. Due to this, a wide variety
of stable complexes are formed by transition elements.
 These elements have a large ratio of charge to the radius.
 Transition metals tend to be hard and they have relatively high densities when compared
to other elements.
 The boiling points and the melting points of these elements are high, due to the participation
of the delocalized d electrons in metallic bonding.
 This metallic bonding of the delocalized d electrons also causes the transition elements to
be good conductors of electricity.
 Several transition metals have catalytic properties that are very useful in the industrial
production of some chemicals. For example, iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber process
of preparing ammonia. Similarly, vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst in the industrial
production of sulfuric acid.
Study Questions

1. An element that is an example of a metalloid is (a) S; (b) Zn; (c) Ge; (d) Re; (e) none of these
2. In the periodic table, the vertical (up and down) columns are called (a) periods; (b) transitions;
(c) families/groups; (d) metalloids; (e) none of these.
3. Why are noble gases inert (nonreactive)?
4. What are compounds that contain a halogen called?
5. Lanthanides and Actinides are: (a) alkali earth metals; (b) transition metals; (c) metalloids; (d)
alkali metals; (e) none of these
6. Sulfur belongs to the classification of elements called the: A. inner transition elements. B.
representative elements. C. transition elements. D. alkali metals.
7. Which of the following is NOT diatomic? A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Neon D. Chlorine
8. Choose the true statement regarding the periodic trends. A. Along aperiod fromleftto right,
atomic radius increases. B. Along a period from left to right, ionization energy decreases. C.
Electronegativity ofelementsincreases from right to left along a period. D. None of the above.