GeoArabia, Vol. 12, No.

3, 2007 Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria

Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain

Hydrocarbon plays and prospectivity of the Levantine Basin,

offshore Lebanon and Syria from modern seismic data
Glyn Roberts and David Peace

ABSTRACT

The Levantine Basin is located in the easternmost region of the Mediterranean Sea
between Cyprus and the Nile Delta marine cone in Egypt. Based on an analysis
of more than 20,000 line-km of 2-D seismic data, the basin appears to contain up
to 10,000 metres of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks above a rifted Triassic-Lower
Jurassic terrain. Although many hydrocarbon discoveries have been made in the
Nile Delta and the near-offshore areas in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea,
no exploration wells have been drilled in its deep offshore or anywhere offshore
Lebanon, Syria and Cyprus. Widespread occurrence of oil seeps (over 200) that
closely correlate to hydrocarbon indication on seismic (e.g. bright spots and gas
chimneys associated with possible migration pathways) suggest that the undrilled
parts of the Levantine Basin can be prospective. Thirteen potential exploration
plays are identified in this study and illustrated with seismic examples. The plays
range in age from the Triassic to the Neogene-Pliocene.

INTRODUCTION

The Levantine Basin is situated in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1; Breman, 2006).
Its northern boundary is defined by Cyprus and the Larnaca Thrust Zone, and its northwestern
margin by the Eratosthenes Seamount. The Nile Delta Cone and the East Mediterranean coast define
its southwestern and eastern margins. Evidence from seismic and other geophysical studies show that
the Levantine Basin contains up to 10,000 metres of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequences above a rifted
Triassic-Lower Jurassic terrain. The basin is structurally complex with evidence of both compression
and extension due to plate motions, salt tectonics and other gravitational processes. Along the eastern
Lebanon offshore margin, there is good evidence of a NS-trending fault that runs semi-parallel to the
Dead Sea Transform. The latter fault accommodates the sinistral movement between the Levant and
Arabian plates further inland (Aksu et al., 2005).

Apart from hydrocarbon discoveries made in the Nile Delta in Egypt, and the near-offshore areas in
the southeastern Mediterranean Sea, the Levantine Basin is essentially an exploration frontier region.
To date no exploration wells have been drilled in its deep offshore or anywhere offshore Lebanon,
Syria and Cyprus. This paper is based on an analysis of over 20,000 line-km of 2-D seismic data from
the Levantine Basin and adjacent areas acquired and processed by GGS-Spectrum and its co-venturers
(Figure 2). It concentrates on describing the offshore exploration plays in Lebanon and Syria.

REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING

It is generally considered that the East Mediterranean Basin formed during the tectonic break-up of
the Pangea Supercontinent during the mid-Permian to Middle Jurassic times. However, the history
and nature of the crustal evolution of the Levantine Basin is not generally agreed upon and falls into
two models. The first model interprets the underlying crust as oceanic and the product of rifting and
drifting (e.g. Garfunkel, 1998, 2005; Robertson et al., 1998), while the second considers it as a stretched
continental-transitional crust (e.g. Vidal, 2000; Gardosh and Druckman, 2005). Reported geophysical
estimates of the depth to the Moho (approximately 20 km versus 35–40 km for the true continental
crust to the east) can be used to support either model.

Our modern seismic data suggests that the crust beneath the Levantine Basin is probably transitional
in nature since no evidence is seen of oceanic crust. Instead, deep seismic lines show a faulted terrain
of Jurassic or possibly Triassic age. This is illustrated in Figures 3a and 3b, which are sections from
the southern and central parts of the Levantine Basin, and which are approximately orthogonal to the
basin margins (i.e. parallel to the assumed Mesozoic extensional direction).

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 Roberts and Peace

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN

30° Isparta 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° Adana

sin
Basin

Ba
Angle

n
TURKEY

ru
de
ken
Is
36° 36°
N Cilicia
0 100
Basin
km
st s

e
gh Aleppo

n
hru rou

Zo
Anim is is T ia T t High
a
Sea xander
Kyrenia-M tak r us
La Th
35°
mou
rn a ca SYRIA
35°
nts La
ust ru

st
CYPRUS Thr
rus Th
Cyp us
Tart
Normal fault
Sout Hekateus Palmyra
Strike-slip fault h Cyprus T Basin
Ridge

re
Herodotus Basin

n
34° Reverse fault LEBANON 34°

ch
Coastal line
and river s
ne Levantine
t he unt Basin
os o
at m
Er Sea
Mediterranean Sea

s
mp
33° 33°

Slu
gh
Hi
Nile Delta Cone re
ho in
fs
of as

c)
n B ARABIAN
er

Ar
t h et PLATE
es

rian
es
W Pl Slump
(Sy
32° elt 32°

Ba
B

rda
old

wil Slump
Lin
F

e
an
yri
i-S

Nile Delta
Si
na

31°
31°
rth
No

LATE
NT P
orm

rst LEVA
a Ho
aniy
sf

Katt JORDAN
Tran

30° 30°
Sea

adiq
Nile River

r
Gha Gindi
Abu Basin EGYPT
Dead

Basin

30° 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° 36°

TURKEY Caspian
Figure 1: Tectonic elements in the East Mediterranean Basin
Sea
30
N (Breman, 2006). The main elements defining the Levantine Basin
SYRIA

Med. Location IRAN

0 300
include the Nile Delta Cone, Eratosthenes Seamount, the Cyprus/
Sea
Map km
Larnaca Thrust Zone and the coastal margin faults along the Eastern
IRAQ

29
JORDAN
KUWAIT margin of the Basin.
39 40 41
BAHRAIN
QATAR
EGYPT Arabian UAE
Shield
OMAN
SAUDI ARABIA
Red
SUDAN Sea

YEMEN
Arabian Sea
ERITREA

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 Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria

GGS-SPECTRUM'S EAST MEDITERRANEAN SEISMIC SURVEYS

30°E 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° 36° 37° 38°

100
500 TURKEY
1,500
100
500
36°N 36°
1,000
N
2,5 0 100
2,000 00
km

2,000
2,00
0

35° Mediterranean RUS SYRIA 35°

CYP
Sea 2,000
2,0
2,500 00

2,0
00 LEBANON
34° 34°
00
1,0

2,00
0
Concession area

Petroleum field
33° 100 Depth (m) 33°
0
50
1,

0
30° 31° 32° 33° 34° 1,00 35° 36° 37° 38°

Figure 2: East Mediterranean area showing the GGS-Spectrum 2-D GGS-Spectrum Seismic Surveys
seismic coverage available for this paper. The Emed-2000 survey was 1975 Reprocessed : 7,834
acquired with a 7,200 metre streamer and recorded to 12 seconds, GL-93 : 508
whilst the LEB-02 survey was recorded with a 6,000 m streamer to 9 Emed-2000 : 12,303
seconds. Leb-02 : 2,000
Total (km) 22,645

In addition, Figure 3b shows the ‘onlapping’ relationship of the Levantine Basin with the Eratosthenes
Seamount. Further study of the seamount, and the incorporation of other geological and geophysical
evidence, would be necessary to throw further light on the nature and history of this significant
feature.

Following the mid-Permian to Early Jurassic break-up of the Pangea Supercontinent, the lithosphere
stretched and thinned (Flexer et al., 2000), and clastics, carbonates and evaporites were deposited in
grabens throughout the Levantine Basin. During the Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous, the basin was
in a passive continental-margin setting. This phase was characterised by normal faulting, sub-parallel
to the present-day East Mediterranean coastline, and basin subsidence. The area was dominated by
shallow to deep-marine carbonate deposition, alternating with clastics on the basin margin (May,
1991).

In Late Cretaceous to Paleogene times, the region experienced compression due to the convergence
of the African and Eurasian plates. This led to the inversion of the previously formed NE-trending
grabens and to strike-slip faulting due to differential plate motion.

At the end of the Miocene, the Mediterranean Sea became isolated from the Atlantic Ocean, which led
to the deposition of up to 1,500 m of evaporites in the Levantine Basin (Gradmann et al., 2005). This
event lasted about 1.5 million years, and is known as the “Messinian Salinity Crisis” (Butler et al.,
1999). The crisis was followed by inundation of the basin with oceanic waters and Pliocene to Recent
sedimentation.

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SEISMIC DIP-LINE ACROSS THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE LEVANTINE BASIN
West-Northwest East-Southeast
a
Roberts and Peace

Mediterranean Sea
2.0

Pliocene-Recent

Messinian Salt 3.0

Base Paleogene
4.0

Upper Cretaceous

5.0

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Lower Cretaceous

102
Jurassic
6.0
Two-way Time (sec)

Permo-Triassic

7.0

8.0

9.0
0 10
km

Figure 3: (a) WNW-ESE seismic line over the southern part of the Levantine Basin showing a Triassic-Jurassic rifted terrain
(including a pop-up structure in the centre of the Basin) overlain by rocks of Cretaceous to Neogene age. Section width
approximately 160 km.
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SEISMIC DIP-LINE ACROSS THE CENTRAL PART OF THE LEVANTINE BASIN
West-Northwest East-Southeast
b
Eratosthenes
Seamount
Mediterranean Sea
2.0

Pliocene-Recent

3.0

Messinian Salt

4.0

Base Paleogene

Upper Cretaceous 5.0

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103
Lower Cretaceous

Jurassic
Two-way Time (sec)

6.0

Permo-Triassic

7.0

8.0

9.0
0 10
km
Onlap of Cretaceous onto the Eratosthenes Seamount

Figure 3 (continued): (b) WNW-ESE seismic line over the central part of the Levantine Basin (offshore Lebanon).
The western portion of the line covers the eastern margin of the Eratosthenes Seamount, where the Cretaceous
is seen to onlap onto its structure (see inset). Section width approximately 180 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
 Roberts and Peace

The present-day Levantine Basin can be described as a foreland basin on the African Plate. To the
north the thrust belt caused by the Africa-Eurasia plate collision is seen in the Cyprus Arc (or Larnaca/
Latakia Ridge system). In total about 14,000 metres of Mesozoic to Recent sediments were deposited
in the Levantine Basin. North of this thrust belt, several ‘piggy-back’ basins can be recognised, such
as the Latakia Trough, Iskenderun, Adana and Cilicia basins (Montadert et al., 1988).

STRATIGRAPHY AND POTENTIAL PETROLEUM SYSTEMS

Overview of the Stratigraphy

The stratigraphy of the northern part of the Levantine Basin is summarised in Figure 4 (Breman, 2006).
Well evidence from the southeastern part of the Levantine Basin, shows that the basin was established
since the Middle Jurassic. Along the present-day coastal area, a shallow-water platform developed,
whereas to the west a deeper-water basin formed (Garfunkel, 1998; Gardosh and Druckman, 2006),
which was possibly up to 2,000 metres below the platform by the end of Jurassic times (Garfunkel,
2005).

Six second-order composite depositional sequences of Jurassic and Cretaceous age have been described
by Gardosh et al. (2002) for the Levantine Basin. The highstand system tracts consist of various types
of aggrading and back-stepping carbonate platforms. The lowstand system tracts consist of siliclastic
and carbonate deep-water turbidite complexes. This sequence stratigraphic architecture provides a
model for sandstone and carbonate reservoirs and for sealing lithofacies, either in a deepwater setting
or associated with major flooding events (May, 1991).

Potential Reservoirs and Seals

Suitable Cenozoic sandstone reservoirs are expected in the basal Pliocene-Pleistocene, intra-Messinian,
and Middle to Lower Cenozoic successions. Cretaceous reservoirs may include both sandstones and
limestones (including carbonate reefs). Jurassic reservoirs may consist of sandstones and limestones,
including fractured dolomites and oolitic limestones. The oldest potential reservoirs are in the Triassic
sandstones.

Impermeable sedimentary rocks that could provide top and/or lateral seals are found in the
Messinian Salt, shales and marls of the Paleogene, Neogene, Cretaceous and Jurassic as well as
Triassic evaporites.

Potential Source Rocks

Several source rocks have been described in the literature for the Levantine Basin and adjacent areas.
Pliocene shales are the source of dry biogenic gas in the Pliocene deep-water sands of the Nile Delta,
and southeastern Mediterranean Sea, where the sediments are believed to have been supplied by
local canyons draining the coastal areas (Maddox, 2000). To date more than 1.0–2.0 trillion cubic feet
(TCF) of gas has been proven in the southern Levantine Basin in these biogenic gas systems.

The most common source rocks in the region occur in rocks of Mesozoic age. Oil-prone source
rocks are found in the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian, Turonian or Senonian – see Lipson-Benitah,
1988; Tannenbaum and Lewan, 2003). Triassic-Jurassic source rocks are often gas-prone (Nader and
Swennen, 2004).

Indications of a Mesozoic hydrocarbon system have been found in onshore Lebanon where, for
example, in-situ Senonian hydrocarbon shows (asphalt) have been recorded from marly-chalky
carbonates, which are rich in organic material and are believed to have been deposited in an anoxic
basin. These are not mature onshore, probably due to the shallow depth of burial (Nader and
Swennen, 2004). Hydrocarbon shows have also been reported in the Cenomanian (El Qaa borehole)
and Kimmeridgian (Terbol-1 well, where the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) was 10%). Offshore both of
these sources could generate hydrocarbons due to increased maturity.

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 Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria

Cyprus

Source Rock

Stratigraphy
Lebanon

Iskenderun

(Haq et al.,
Sequence
Reservoir

Tectonic
Events
GTS 2004

1988)
Offshore
(Gradstein et al., 2004) Levant E W NW Cyprus Offshore Eratos-
Onshore Syria Syria Lebanon Cyprus thenes
Pliocene 5.332 Sedom
Neogene
Lapatza
Bira
Miocene Kythrea

Styrian
Terbol
Zahle Pakhna
Hordos
CENOZOIC

23.03 Arava
Chattian Klepini
Oligocene 28.4 ± 0.1 Hazeva Bellapais

Pyrenean
Rupelian
33.9 ± 0.1
Paleogene

Priabonian
37.2 ± 0.1
Bartonian
Eocene 40.4 ± 0.2
Lutetian
48.6 ± 0.2 Ayios
Ypresian Lefkara

Sub-Hercynian Laramide
55.8 ± 0.2 Nikolaos
Palaeocene
65.5 ± 0.3 Mardin Gp
Maastrichtian Melounda
70.6 ± 0.6 Chekka
Campanian Moni
83.5 ± 0.7
Santonian 85.8 ± 0.7
Coniacian
89.3 ± 1.0 Kannaviou
Upper

Troodos complex
Karadut
Turonian Maameltain
Peraphedi
93.5 ± 0.8

Cenomanian
Sannine
Cretaceous

99.6 ± 0.9

Albian Hammana

112.0 ± 1.0

Austrian
Aptian
Akamas
Lower 125.0 ± 1.0 Mdairej
Barremian
130.0 ± 1.5 Abieh
Chouf
Hauterivian Licek
136.4 ± 2.0
Valanginian
MESOZOIC

140.2 ± 3.0
?
Berriasian Episkopi

Late Kimmerian
145.5 ± 4.0
Tithonian
Kuran

150.8 ± 4.0 Haifa

Marona

Salima
Upper Kimmeridgian Bay Bikfaya
Hilarion

155.7 ± 4.0
Oxfordian ?
Devora Bhannes
Haci

161.2 ± 4.0
Callovian
164.7 ± 4.0
Kesrouane

Bathonian Kara
Jurassic

Middle 167.7 ± 3.5 Haifa ?

Bajocian Sergelu
171.6 ± 3.0
Aalenian
Nenyas

175.6 ± 2.0
Phasoula
Hilarion

Toarcian
Marona

Mid Kimmerian

183.0 ± 1.5
Pliensbachian Chouane ?
Lower 189.6 ± 1.5
Asher
Sinemurian
Veraricelicoke
196.5 ± 1.0
Phasoula
Vlambouros

Alan/Mus
Sikhari

Hettangian ?
Hezan

199.6 ± 0.6 Mohilla Adaya

Butmah
Upper
Early Kimmerian

Kurrachine
Triassic

228.0 ± 2.0 Raaf Hezankilise ?

Middle
245.0 ± 1.5 Amanus
Zafir
Lower Kilizedag ?
Dikhomo ?
251.0 ± 0.4
Conglomerate Silt, Siltstone Marl Limestone Gypsum/Anhydrite Volcanics/Extrusives

Sandstone Clay, Claystone, Shale Chalk Dolomite Salt Intrusives

Coal Chert Oolitic Reef Channel

Figure 4: The stratigraphy of the nothern part of the Levantine Basin is indicated in the column
below Offshore Cyprus/Syria/Lebanon, where the relationship between shelf and basin
deposition is indicated by the different lithologies.

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 Roberts and Peace

This possibility is supported in the southern part of the Levantine Basin by Mango-1. This well
tested 10,000 barrels oil/day (BOPD) from Lower Cretaceous sandstones. Two other wells in the area
tested light oil at 500 BOPD levels from small tight complex structures, showing further evidence of
excellent oil potential further offshore. Other wells in this area tested thermogenic gas in the Pliocene-
Pleistocene rocks. This gas is believed to be associated with deeper oil accumulations (Feinstein et al.,
1993; Horscroft and Peck, 2005), possibly from the Middle Jurassic.

HYDROCARBON HABITAT AND PLAY CONCEPTS

A satellite seep study undertaken by Infoterra over the East Mediterranean Sea (Figure 5a) has shown
that seep features are widespread (over 200) and diverse (Peace and Johnson, 2001). Combining this
information with GGS-Spectrum’s seismic data, provided additional support for the presence of a
working petroleum system in the ‘deep’ Levantine Basin. Often the seeps have a close correlation to
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI), bright spots, flat spots and gas chimneys seen on the seismic
data (Figures 5b and 6). Some of the seeps are associated with clear migration pathways through
deep-seated major faults.

A large number of potential hydrocarbon plays have been recognised in the seismic data. From
younger to older these are:

(1) post-salt (Pliocene to Recent) channel sands;

(2) intra-salt (Messinian) sand plays such as bright spots and channels;
(3) sub-Messinian salt plays;
(4) anticlines and faulted anticlines in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene;
(5) onlaps in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene;
(6) fault blocks and combined fault/stratigraphic traps in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene;
(7) large inversion structures in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene;
(8) carbonate build-ups in the Cretaceous (e.g. rudist reefs) to Miocene;
(9) onlap and drape onto Jurassic highs;
(10) Jurassic sediments in anticlines/horsts or inverted grabens;
(11) Jurassic carbonate build-ups on highs;
(12) Jurassic karst plays; and
(13) Triassic plays.

The EW-oriented, depth-migrated seismic line in Figure 7 is located in offshore Lebanon. It is only
40 km in length and shows examples of nine of these 13 plays (plays 1–5 and 8–11). Other examples
of the enumerated plays occur commonly and are discussed below.

(1) Post-salt (Pliocene to Recent) channel sands (Figure 8)

These are generally found in the near-shore areas but, not unexpectedly, are nowhere as deep-
lying or extensive as those described for the Nile Delta (Aal et al., 2001), which are due to the
huge influx of deltaic deposits in that area. Potential reservoirs could be sourced from either the
surrounding Pliocene shales, or if Messinian salt is absent or has been breached, from deeper
levels as seen in the southern part of the Levantine Basin (Feinstein et al., 1993; Horscroft and
Peck, 2005).

(2) Intra-salt (Messinian) sand plays (Figures 8 and 9)

The Messinian Salt sedimentation appears to have been controlled by basin topography and to
possibly include sand-like bodies within the salt; one interpretation is a shallow water or sabkha
paleo-environment with the incursion of clastics into the system. An alternative interpretation
of the higher amplitude events within the salt is also possible; for example, they could be due to
alternating successions of different types of evaporites such as halite and anhydrite/gypsum as
a result of several different transgressive events (Gradmann et al., 2005). These plays would also
need to rely on a breach in the underlying salt to allow oil migration.

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 Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria

PETROLEUM SEEPS
a
TURKEY

36°N

SYRIA
Crete

N
NO
34°

BA
LE
Mediterranean
Sea

32°
0 N 100

km

JORDAN
26°E 28° 30° 32° EGYPT 34° 36°

b South Gas Chimney over Faulted Anticline North

1.0
Mediterranean Sea d
Pliocene-
Recent

2.0
Messinian

Two-way Time (sec)

Salt

3.0
c

4.0

0 5
km
5.0

Figure 5: (a) Satellite seep coverage.

(b and c) Satellite seep images. The grey colour corresponds to the sea surface while disturbed by
wind and waves. The black colour represents the calmer waters that occur when oil lies on top
of them, i.e. the oil damps down the disturbed sea state. When the oil escapes to the surface it
does so as films around escaping gas bubbles. Once the gas bubbles reach the sea surface the
bubbles burst and the oil film collapses onto the sea surface. Each one coalesces with other
similar oil films from other collapsed bubbles (literally millions of bubbles). All these small
oil films combine together to form an oil slick that calms the waters. The black colour is the
"effect" of the oil not the oil itself. Width of images (b) and (c) approximately 4 and 12 km,
respectively. (Images a, b and c provided by Infoterra)
(d) Seismic example of gas chimney and sea-floor seep from the study area.

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DIRECT HYDROCARBON INDICATORS
West East West East
Roberts and Peace

2.0
Mediterranean Sea
Messinian Salt
3.4

3.0

4.0 4.0

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4.3
Base Paleogene

108
5.0

Two-way Time (sec)

Two-way Time (sec)

6.0

Cretaceous

5.0

7.0

Cretaceous Reef

10 km wide

8.0 Figure 6: Flat spot (at 4.3 sec) in the Cretaceous and
50 km wide possibly shallower in the Paleogene.
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PLAYS IN THE LEVANTINE BASIN
West East
0
Depth (km) Fore-reef
Paleogene
“Talus” plays Cretaceous reefs
Mediterranean Sea inversion structures Paleogene
Cretaceous onlap 1.0
Sub-salt pinch-out Jurassic reef
inversion structures
Sub-salt inversion

Pliocene-Recent 2.0

Messinian Salt 3.0

4.0

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Base Paleogene 5.0
Depth (km)

109
Upper Cretaceous
6.0

Middle Cretaceous 7.0

8.0

Lower Cretaceous
9.0

Top Jurassic Jurassic/Triassic 0 2.5

km
horsts and grabens
10.0
Figure 7: Pre-Stack Depth Migration (PSDM) showing numerous plays in offshore Lebanon (LEB-02 survey area).
Section width approximately 40 km. Vertical scale in depth (km).
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
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POST-SALT CHANNEL SANDS AND MOUNDS
South North
Roberts and Peace

Gas
Chimneys Mediterranean Sea
Channel sands and mounds
2.0
Pliocene-Recent

2.5
Messinian Salt

3.0
Paleogene-Neogene

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110
Two-way Time (sec)

3.5
Cretaceous

Base Cretaceous
Top Jurassic
4.0

4.5

0 5
km

Figure 8: Channel sands and mounds in the Neogene with possible gas chimneys. Section width approximately 65 km.
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TYPICAL PLAYS FROM THE NORTHERN PART OF THE LEVANTINE BASIN (OFFSHORE SYRIA)
West East

Mediterranean Sea 2.0

Carbonate Post-salt
Intra-Messinian sand Sub-salt pinchout play Gas sand ? build-up play channel play

2.5
Pliocene-Recent

Messinian Salt

3.0

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111
Base Paleogene 3.5
Two-way Time (sec)

4.0

Cretaceous

4.5

Top Jurassic Antiform play

0 2
km
5.0
Figure 9: Sub-Messinian, Intra-Messinian and other plays, section width approximately 27 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
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ANTICLINAL PLAY
West East
2.0
Roberts and Peace

Cretaceous lead
Mediterranean Sea

2.5

Pliocene-Recent

3.0

Messinian Salt

3.5

Base Paleogene

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4.0
Upper Cretaceous

112
Two-way Time (sec)
4.5

Middle and
5.0
lower Cretaceous

5.5

Top Jurassic
0 2
km
6.0
Figure 10: Cretaceous lead in faulted anticline indicated by change in seismic character. Section width approximately 30 km.
A longer portion of this line is shown in Figure 15.
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CRETACEOUS ONLAP ONTO THE EASTERN MARGIN OF THE LEVANTINE BASIN
West East

Cretaceous onlap
Mediterranean Sea
2.0

Pliocene-Recent

3.0
Messinian Salt

4.0

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113
5.0
Two-way Time (sec)

Base Paleogene

Cretaceous
6.0

Jurassic 7.0

0 5
km

Figure 11: Onlap in the Cretaceous with possible top and bottom seal. Section width approximately 60 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
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LARGE JURASSIC-CRETACEOUS FAULT BLOCK WITH ASSOCIATED FAULT/STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
South North
Roberts and Peace

Mediterranean Sea
1.0

DHI leads
2.0

Pliocene-Recent

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3.0

114
Messinian Salt

Two-way Time (sec)

Base Paleogene

4.0

Cretaceous

5.0

0 5
km Jurassic

Figure 12: (a) Fault and combined fault/stratigraphic traps in the Cretaceous to Paleogene. Amplitude brightening adjacent
to the faults may be DHIs (Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators). Section width approximately 53 km.
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AMPLITUDE ANOMALIES ADJACENT TO THE FAULTS
South-Southwest North-Northeast
b
DHI leads Mediterranean Sea
2.0

Pliocene-Recent
2.5

3.0 Messinian Salt

3.5

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Base Paleogene

115
4.0

Two-way Time (sec)

Cretaceous

4.5

Top Jurassic

5.0

5.5
0 2
km

Figure 12 (continued): (b) Fault and combined fault/stratigraphic traps in the Cretaceous to Paleogene showing DHI leads in
more detail (on a line nearby that is shown in 12a). Section width approximately 23 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
 Roberts and Peace

(3) Sub-Messinian salt plays (Figure 9)

Messinian salt provides a first class seal for potential Miocene reservoirs immediately below
the base of the salt. In many cases these rocks are either gently folded, creating four-way dip
closures, or pinch-outs below the base salt contact.

(4) Anticlines and faulted anticlines in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene (Figure 10)
In the basinal areas, the Cretaceous to Cenozoic rocks are seen to be gently folded and faulted.
The tectonic trend is SW-NE and is believed to be due to ‘Syrian Arc’ deformation and regional
basin inversion, which occurred in several phases from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian) to the
Eocene (Moustafa, 2002). The deformation has been reported to be extensive in the area from
Syria through to northern Egypt.

(5) Onlaps in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene (Figure 11)

Onlapping sequences are extensive along the eastern and western margin of the Levantine Basin
(as seen in Figure 7 and 11) as well as being found deeper offshore over the Jurassic highs (Figure
15). Potential reservoirs could thus be found if suitable top/bottom seals are present.

(6) Fault blocks and combined fault/stratigraphic traps in the middle Cretaceous to Paleogene
(Figures 12a and 12b)
This example shows a syn-rift play on the eastern margin of the Levantine Basin. The potential
reservoir sands show amplitude brightening and are a prime candidate for further geophysical
work such as pre-stack amplitude analysis (e.g. AVO).

(7) Large inversion structures in the Cretaceous to Paleogene (Figure 13)

These are a larger version of the play described in (4) above and are typically around 10 km in
width and 20 to 30 km in length.

(8) Carbonate build-ups in the Cretaceous (e.g. rudist reefs) to Miocene (Figure 9 and 14)
Carbonate build-ups are seen on the platform margin in a number of areas, including the fringe of
a large Jurassic high in the southern part of offshore Lebanon (Figure 14). It is suggested here that
some of these build-ups may have originated as rudist reefs. Rudist reefs of Albian to Turonian
age have been reported to outcrop south of the study area in the Carmel region (Bein, 1976)
and elsewhere in the Mediterranean (Philip, 1988). Rudists are bivalve reef builders, which are
believed to have formed topographic wave-resistant banks or reefs. Dissolution of the aragonite
skeletons and dolomitisation can produce extensive secondary porosity. With the rudists dying-
out in the Turonian, we postulate that growth of some of the carbonate mounds continued, by
another as yet unidentified reef-builder, into Paleogene-Neogene time – until the start of the
Messinian Salinity Crisis. This is illustrated in Figure 14 where the reef complex sits on a large,
presumably very stable, Jurassic high in the southern part of offshore Lebanon, and is overlain
by Messinian salt. Reefs of Cenozoic age have been recognised elsewhere in the Mediterranean,
e.g. on the Balearic Islands (Pomar, 2001a, b).

(9) Onlap and drape onto Jurassic highs (Figure 15)

The Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary is marked by an angular unconformity with Cretaceous
sequences onlapping and draping over a faulted Jurassic terrain. These structural and stratigraphic
plays rely on the presence of Cretaceous reservoir rock and seal, and could be sourced from either
the Jurassic or Cretaceous successions.

(10) Jurassic sediments in anticlines/horsts or inverted grabens (Figure 15 and 16)

Subaerial exposure and erosion of the Jurassic sediments may have enhanced the reservoir
properties of the rocks and created talus and alluvial plays. The overlying Cretaceous marls
would act as the seal and the play could be sourced either from the underlying Jurassic, or from
structurally deeper Cretaceous sequences.

(11) Jurassic carbonate build-ups on highs (Figure 9)

This play relies on the presence of pre-Jurassic or Lower Jurassic highs on which carbonate reefs
were built up.

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LARGE INVERSION STRUCTURE IN THE CRETACEOUS TO NEOGENE
West East

Large Cretaceous-Neogene inversion (20 km x 10 km) 2.0

Mediterranean Sea

Pliocene-Recent

3.0
Messinian Salt

Base Paleogene
4.0

Upper Cretaceous

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117
5.0

Lower Cretaceous
Two-way Time (sec)

Top Jurassic 6.0

7.0

0 5
km
8.0
Figure 13: Large inversion structure in the Cretaceous-Neogene. Section width approximately 45 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
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CRETACEOUS TO MIOCENE CARBONATE BUILD-UP (REEF)
West East
Roberts and Peace

Jurassic
Cretaceous-Neogene Reefs (?) karst play
Mediterranean Sea on Jurassic high
2.0

Pliocene-Recent
3.0

Messinian Salt

4.0

Base Paleogene 5.0

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118
Two-way Time (sec)

6.0

Cretaceous
Fore reef Talus

7.0

Alluvial fans
Top Jurassic
8.0

9.0
0 5
km

Figure 14: Cretaceous to Miocene carbonate build-up on a Jurassic high offshore in the southern part of Lebanon. The reef sits
on the margin of the high and can be recognised in a similar position on a number of lines in the vicinity. There is also a
possible karsified play to the East (nearer shore). Section width approximately 75 km.
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ONLAP AND DRAPE OF CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTS ONTO JURASSIC HIGHS
West East
2.0
Mediterranean Sea Onlap and drape onto Jurassic highs

2.5
Pliocene-Recent

3.0 Messinian Salt

Base Paleogene
3.5

4.0 Cretaceous

4.5

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Top Jurassic

119
5.0

Two-way Time (sec)

5.5
Basin margin fan

6.0

6.5

7.0

0 5
km

Figure 15: Onlap and drape of Cretaceous sediments onto Jurassic highs. Also shown is another possible play on the
Eastern margin of the Basin - a basin margin fan of Cretaceous age. Section width approximately 50 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
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LARGE JURASSIC INVERSION STRUCTURE
West East
Roberts and Peace

Mediterranean Sea
2.0
Large (35 km x 60 km) inversion at Jurassic level

Pliocene-Recent 3.0

Messinian Salt

4.0

Base Paleogene
5.0

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Upper Cretaceous

120
6.0
Two-way Time (sec)

Lower Cretaceous 7.0

8.0

Jurassic

9.0
Triassic 0 0 10
5
km km

Figure 16: Large (35 km x 60 km) Jurassic inversion. Section width approximately 95 km.
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POSSIBLE TRIASSIC PLAYS
West-Northwest East-Southeast

Pliocene-Recent
3.0

Messinian Salt

4.0

Base Paleogene

5.0

Cretaceous

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6.0

121
Two-way Time (sec)

Jurassic
7.0

Triassic Triassic

8.0

9.0

Triassic 0 10
km

Figure 17: Possible Triassic plays - the shallower ones could be drillable. Section width appoximately 140 km.
Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria
 Roberts and Peace

EXPLORATION LEADS
30°E 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° 36°

in
a

s
sin an
TURKEY

Ba
Ba -Ad

n
ru
ia

de
lic
Ci

en
36°N 36°

k
Is
SYRIA
u gh
ia Tro Latakia
tak Ridge
La
System
35° CYPRUS 35°

ge
id
N ac
aR
0 50 L ar n

km
Mediterranean
Sea

34° 34°

N
NO
BA
LE
Eratosthenes
Seamount Levantine
Basin

33° 33°

Dead Sea Transform

Nile Delta Basin

JORDAN

32° 32°

30° 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° 36°

Structural elements and plays offshore Figure 18: Leads (i.e. potential petroleum prospects)
Faults Compressed Salt
are shown in yellow and have been identified and
mapped from the seismic data. The lead areas often
Leads Major thrust belts
include more than one play type. They are posted on
Erathosthenes
Basin areas
Sea mount a structural elements map. Minor faults have been
West Levantine Jurassic High omitted.
basin-margin ridge (Offshore South Lebanon)

(12) Jurassic Karst plays (Figure 14)

Changes in the seismic character of data on the top of Jurassic highs strongly indicate the
possibility of karstification and a possible play sealed by overlying Lower Cretaceous mudstones
(Breman, 2006).

(13) Triassic plays (Figure 17)

Triassic plays are common onshore Syria and could be expected along the continental margin.
The deeper water area also shows evidence of faulted pre-Jurassic terrain, which could be related
to the early opening of the east Mediterranean basin during the Triassic. One of the critical
components in any of these deep plays would be depth of burial and the possibility of over-
maturity in the deeper parts of the basin.

The location of some of these extensive plays and leads are shown in Figure 18.

CONCLUSIONS

The Levantine Basin is a large, thick sedimentary basin with rocks from Triassic to Recent age, which
has exhibited passive-margin processes and sedimentation for more than a 100 million years. Over this
period, subsidence, uplift and tectonic processes have created a favourable regime for hydrocarbon

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 Levantine Basin, Lebanon and Syria

generation and trapping. Offshore Lebanon and Syria is very much an under-explored province
with numerous plays from the Triassic to Tertiary in shallow to deep waters. These plays have been
highlighted by modern seismic data whose availability will spur-on exploration efforts in the area
and aid the authorities and oil companies in future petroleum licensing rounds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank GGS-Spectrum, Fugro Geoteam, staff at Spectrum Energy and Information
Technology (now GGS-Spectrum), Alan Taylor (A.T. Energy Ltd.), Dave Meaux (AOA Geophysics
Inc.), Paul Chandler (Infoterra), the Lebanese and Syrian authorities, and two anonymous referees.
GeoArabia’s Editor-in-Chief, Moujahed Al-Husseini and Designer Arnold Egdane are thanked for
preparing the final editing and designs.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Glyn Roberts is the New Ventures Manager of GGS-Spectrum’s Non-
Exclusive Survey Department. He is a Geologist with 30 years experience
for Geophysical Contractors from GSI/HGS to Nopec International to TGS-
Nopec and GGS-Spectrum.
glyn@[Link]

David Peace is an Independent Consultant with SD Exploration Services.

His career started nearly 40 years ago with Esso Exploration in EAME region
and covered evaluation of many play types in the greater Mediterranean
and North Africa region. He later worked extensively as a consultant with
AGIP-ENI based in Milan and the UK where he evaluated many regions
around Italy and the central Mediterranean region. In 1987 he was a new
venture opportunity specialist with Texaco for the EAME region and in
the 1990 was appointed as Exploration Director of Texaco Italiana based in
Rome where he first started looking at the Eastern Mediterranean potential.
In 1998 he left Texaco and started his own consulting business SDES. He
has subsequently carried out regional scale interpretation of the Spectrum - GGS seismic data
covering the entire Eastern Mediterranean region. He has arranged regional SAR natural oil seep
studies and potential fields evaluations of the Eastern Mediterranean region. More recently he
has been involved in more detailed prospect evaluation and licence work in the Levantine Basin
region.
davepeace@[Link]

Manuscript received November 1, 2006

Revised January 24, 2007

Accepted January 25, 2007

Press version proofread by authors May 14, 2007

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