energies

Review
A Review on Battery Thermal Management for New
Energy Vehicles
Wenzhe Li 1 , Youhang Zhou 2 , Haonan Zhang 1, * and Xuan Tang 2, *

1 College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
2 School of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China
* Correspondence: zhanghaonan@[Link] (H.Z.); tangxuan@[Link] (X.T.)

Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with relatively high energy density and power density are
considered an important energy source for new energy vehicles (NEVs). However, LIBs are highly
sensitive to temperature, which makes their thermal management challenging. Developing a high-
performance battery thermal management system (BTMS) is crucial for the battery to retain high
efficiency and security. Generally, the BTMS is divided into three categories based on the physical
properties of the cooling medium, including phase change materials (PCMs), liquid, and air. This
paper discusses the effect of temperature on the performance of individual batteries and battery
systems, at first. Then, a systematic survey of the state-of-the-art BTMS is presented in terms of
liquid-based, PCM-based, and air-based BTMS. To further utilize the heat source of the vehicle,
the BTMS integrated with the vehicle thermal management system (VTMS) is discussed. Finally,
the challenges and future prospects for BTMS with the ability to cut off the thermal runaway are
discussed. The primary aim of this review is to offer some guidelines for the design of safe and
effective BTMS for the battery pack of NEVs.

Keywords: new energy vehicle; lithium-ion battery; thermal management system

1. Introduction
Citation: Li, W.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, H.;
Nowadays, energy conservation and emission reduction drive the auto industry to
Tang, X. A Review on Battery
abandon the internal combustion engine step by step [1,2]. New energy vehicles (NEVs),
Thermal Management for New
powered by renewable fuels, are applied to replace the fossil-based vehicle [3,4]. Lithium-
Energy Vehicles. Energies 2023, 16,
4845. [Link]
ion batteries (LIBs) are considered as the most promising energy storage equipment
en16134845
for NEVs, including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and pure battery electric vehicles
(BEVs), because of their high energy/power density, long cycle life, and eco-friendly
Academic Editors: Zhongwei Deng, properties [1,5–7].
Le Xu and Bo Jiang
The fundamental challenge for NEVs to be commercialized is energy storage. Develop-
Received: 26 March 2023 ing an applicable energy storage device to achieve high power and high energy is essential.
Revised: 10 June 2023 In order to achieve the power and energy requirements of NEVs, LIBs are connected in
Accepted: 19 June 2023 series/parallels to fabricate module and pack [8,9]. For these demanding applications,
Published: 21 June 2023 LIBs are deemed sensitive to pressure, vibration, and temperature. Among these factors,
temperature has a significant impact on the performance of LIBs [10,11].
For example, the low temperature will reduce the power and energy output of LIBs,
and the high temperature will result in the complicated side reaction of battery components,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. which can trigger thermal runaway (TR) in extreme conditions [1,12]. For battery systems,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the uneven distribution of temperature will cause different electrochemical behaviors and
This article is an open access article
electrically unbalanced cells, which impacts the performance of NEVs seriously [13]. Thus,
distributed under the terms and
it is essential to create a reliable and efficient battery thermal management system (BTMS)
conditions of the Creative Commons
that can maintain the battery temperature within a defined range for NEVs. An ideal BTMS
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
should be capable of regulating the battery pack to an optimal temperature while adding
[Link]/licenses/by/
4.0/).
minimal weight and cost.

Energies 2023, 16, 4845. [Link] [Link]

Energies 2023, 16, 4845 2 of 20

Nowadays, considerable research has been developed for BTMS, which can be cat-
egorized as follows: active or passive [5], series or parallel [14], heating or cooling, air
or water or phase change material (PCM) [10], and hybrid strategy combining multiple
methods [15]. The project design of BTMS has great influence on the cost, heat transfer,
energy management, battery health, energy density, etc., of battery systems [10]. Generally,
the ambition to boost the charging rates in the future for faster charging and longer trips
means that the BTMS should be more crucial [16].
In this paper, our objective is to offer guidance on the design of an efficient BTMS for
the practical implementation of high-energy-density LIBs in NEV. We discuss the effect
of temperature on the performance of individual batteries and battery systems firstly,
then focus on the research progress of air cooling, liquid cooling, and PCM-based cooling
systems, and the advantages and drawbacks of those approaches are summarized in detail.
In addition, the design of BTMS combined with vehicle thermal management (VTM) is
discussed in detail. Finally, the challenges and future prospects for BTMS with the ability to
cut off the thermal runaway are discussed. We hope this paper can provide some effective
guidance for the design of BTMS for NEVs.

2. Battery Thermal Performances

LIBs as a complicated electrochemical energy storage system will produce a lot of heat
during the operating process, especially on high rate charge/discharge processes [17,18]. In
Zhang’s study, the temperature of a NMC battery will exceed 75 ◦ C at a 3 ◦ C discharging rate
without any treatment (ambient temperature is 25 ◦ C) [19]. In general, as important energy
storage devices, LIBs are sensitive to temperature and voltage [1]. Figure 1a illustrates the
behaviors of LIBs at different voltages and temperatures [16]. It is reported that the suitable
operating temperature for LIBs from 15 to 35 ◦ C is the design criterion established by the
battery plant [19]. With an increase in temperature, the batteries exhibit improved power
outputs and higher capacities due to fast ion migration in both the electrolyte and electrode
materials, and rapid electrochemical reactions. However, side reactions become more
violent, resulting in fast capacity fade and provoking higher temperatures [20]. If the heat
isn’t dispersed in time, the temperature will increase sequentially. The decomposition of the
solid electrolyte interface (SEI) as well as electrode materials and continuously intensified
side reactions can lead to fire hazards [13,21,22]. Conversely, low temperatures will result
in lithium plating on the anode, increase the viscosity of electrolytes, and reduce the Li ionic
conductivity, which reduces the available energy, increases internal impedance, and results
in the poor rate capability of LIBs as Figure 1b,c show [23,24]. It is reported that the lithium
plating can react with the electrolyte, which will result in capacity fade and gas release
during cycling [13,25]. More severely, the continuous growth of lithium dendrites could
further penetrate the separator, leading to the internal short circuit of LIBs [26], although a
micro-short circuit will cause the self-discharge of LIBs, while the large short circuit will
result in severe safety issues [27]. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the LIBs are working
in the “comfortable zone”.
The previous content introduces the effect of temperature on individual battery. For
NEVs, the battery system is called the battery pack, which is composed of hundreds of
LIBs connected in series or parallels to fulfill the requirement of voltage and power [1,8]. In
fact, heat transfer between each cell is enslaved to the complicated structure of the battery
pack, which will result in the pack thermal gradients. The uneven temperature distribution
within the cell, module, or pack can result in varying charging or discharging behaviors,
as well as electrochemical performance, giving rise to the inconsistency of temperature
further [28,29]. The uniformity of LIBs will reduce the age of the battery system and result in
lower capacity utilization, even system failures. Thus, keeping the temperature consistency
between each battery is another critical issue for BTMS to overcome the “wooden battel
effect” of the battery system.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 3 of 20

Figure 1. (a) Temperature

Figure 1. (a) impact on life,
Temperature safety,
impact on life,and performance
safety, of lithium-ion
and performance batteries
of lithium-ion batteries [16]; (b)
[16];
Energy density (b) Energyenvironmental
versus density versus environmental temperature
temperature [23];Normalized
[23]; (c) (c) Normalized internal
internalresistance versus versus
resistance
temperature [23].
temperature [23].

The previous content introduces the effect of temperature on individual battery. For
NEVs, the battery system is called the battery pack, which is composed of hundreds of
LIBs connected in series or parallels to fulfill the requirement of voltage and power [1,8].
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 4 of 20

3. Battery Thermal Management Systems

In order to be widely adopted in industry, the battery is built with fixed shapes and
geometry. In some applications, the battery system will suffer extreme operating conditions
such as high-rate charge/discharge and high/low temperature, which can increase the
failure probability of the battery system. To maintain suitable operating temperature, the
BTMS should be applied. Heat transfer medium has a significant effect on the cost and
performance of BTMS. The heat transfer medium could be air, liquid, phase change material
(PCM), etc.

3.1. Air-Cooling
Generally, air-cooling with the advantages of straightforward structure, lightweight,
and maintenance convenience was considered as a cost-effective and reliable scheme
for BTMS of NEVs [30]. It is proposed that air-cooling can be categorized into natural
convection and forced convection [16]. The natural convection cools the batteries by
allowing the air to sweep the battery pack spontaneously [31]. It is reported that the
air natural convection for thermal dissipation is invalid for the BTMS of NEVs [32]. As
a comparison, the forced convection shows better heat exchange efficiency than natural
convection does because the adoption of air pumps and the cooperation with the evaporator
can circulate the cooling/heating air efficiently [31]. With the better performance in BTMS,
the forced convection was applied on a large scale in the automobile field. It is reported
that the forced convection could be divided into passive air convection and active air
convection [33].
In general, the passive system blows the air from the atmosphere or the cabin. How-
ever, the performance of the passive system depends on the ambient temperature [34]. As
a contrast, the active system takes pre-conditioned air from the heater or evaporator of
a heating ventilation air condition (HVAC) system. In general, the air pre-treated by a
heater or HVAC shows a better thermal control capability in extreme conditions such as
cold temperature (under freezing temperature) and high temperature (exceeding 45 ◦ C).
This system will be introduced in detail in the following section.
In addition, the structure of the duct has a strong impact on the efficiency of BTMS.
In general, the mainstream structure of air ducts for NEVs can be divided into parallel
ventilation and series ventilation as Figure 2a,b show [14]. Pesaran et al. analyze the
thermal performance of the battery pack for those two air ducts [35]. They find that the
BTMS with parallel ventilation provides a lower maximum temperature and a more even
temperature distribution than the BTMS with series ventilation does. In consideration of
the geometric dimension of a cylindrical battery, a novel axial flow air cooling system was
put forward (Figure 2c). It is reported that the axial ventilation can maximize the utilization
of the battery pack’s space and provide higher power density of NEVs equipped with the
cylindrical battery [36,37].
To realize the best performance of the battery system, the air-cooling BTMS should
be optimized [38]. Nowadays, the development of computer numerical simulation tech-
nology and the conducting experiment help the optimization of air-cooling BTMS, which
concentrates on the battery arrangement, the air flow velocities, flow path, and geometrical
arrangement of the batteries in the pack [10,16].
OR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 5 of 20

Figure 2. The traditional structure

Figure of BTMs
2. The traditional basedofon
structure air-cooling.
BTMs (a) Series(a)ventilation
based on air-cooling. [35];[35];
Series ventilation (b) (b)
par-
parallel
allel ventilation [14]; (c) axial air
ventilation forced
[14]; flow
(c) axial [37]. flow [37].
air forced

3.1.1. Parallel
To realize the best performance of the battery system, the air-cooling BTMS should
In general, the parallel air-cooled BTMS can be divided into nine types as Table 1
be optimized [38]. Nowadays, the development
describes [14,39]. Some researchers of applied
computer numerical
numerical simulation
solutions involvingtech-
the CFD
nology and the conducting
approachexperiment
to study the help theperformance
thermal optimization of of air-cooling
parallel BTMS,
air-cooled BTMS. which
Figure 2b
concentrates on theshows
batterythearrangement,
velocity contourstheofair
nineflow velocities,
parallel flow
air ducts, path,
which and geomet-
indicate that the flow
pattern is significantly influenced
rical arrangement of the batteries in the pack [10,16]. by the air inlet and outlet locations [14]. For BTMS III,
the difference in airflow velocity distribution in each cooling channel is the greatest
and the temperature difference is the largest. In contrast, the difference in airflow
3.1.1. Parallel velocity distribution in each cooling channel of the BTMS VII and BTMS IX is less than
In general, theother BTMSs,
parallel corresponding
air-cooled BTMS to smaller
can betemperature differences,
divided into consequently
nine types as Table[14].
1 The
simulation conducted by Chen et al. demonstrates that the maximum temperature and
describes [14,39]. Some researchers applied numerical solutions involving the ◦CFD ap-
maximum temperature difference of BTMS IX decreases by 4.3 and 6.0 C, respectively,
proach to study thecompared
thermaltoperformance of parallel
Z-type BTMS (BTMS I) [39].air-cooled BTMS. Figure 2b shows
the velocity contours of nine parallel air ducts, which indicate that the flow pattern is sig-
nificantly influenced by the air inlet and outlet locations [14]. For BTMS III, the difference
in airflow velocity distribution in each cooling channel is the greatest and the temperature
difference is the largest. In contrast, the difference in airflow velocity distribution in each
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 6 of 20

Table 1. The air inlet and outlet locations of nine BTMS [14].

Serial of the BTMS Details

Both the inlet and outlet are perpendicular to the cooling channels and have opposite directions
BTMS I (Z-type)
(Figure 2b–I).
The inlet and outlet are both perpendicular to the cooling channels and have the same direction
BTMS II (U-type)
(Figure 2b–II).
Based on Z-type air-cooling BTMS, the inlet region’s direction is modified to be parallel to the
BTMS III
cooling channels’ directions (Figure 2b–III).
Based on BTMS III, the air inlet manifold is repositioned to the middle side of the battery pack,
BTMS IV
perpendicular to the cooling channels (Figure 2b–IV).
Based on BTMS III, the air inlet manifold is repositioned to the end of the divergence plenum
BTMS V
(Figure 2b–V).
Based on U-type air-cooling BTMS, the outlet manifold’s direction is modified to be parallel to the
BTMS VI
cooling channels’ directions (Figure 2b–VI).
Based on BTMS IV, the air outlet manifold is shifted to the middle side of the battery pack,
BTMS VII
perpendicular to the cooling channels (Figure 2b–VII).
Based on BTMS VI, the outlet manifold’s position is shifted to the end of the convergence plenum
BTMS VIII
(Figure 2b–VIII).
Both the inlet region and the outlet region are aligned parallel to the cooling channels. The inlet
BTMS IX duct is located in the middle of the divergence plenum, while the outlet region is positioned in
the middle of the convergence plenum (Figure 2b–IX).

Xie et al. improve the heat dissipation performance of U-type air-cooling BTMS by
testing and optimizing the air-inlet angle, the air-outlet angle, and the gap between each
battery [40]. They find that under the conditions of 2.5◦ inlet angle, 2.5◦ outlet angle,
and equal channel gaps demonstrate the best cooling performance for their BTMS [40].
Zhao et al. study the effects of ventilation type, gap size, environmental, and entrance air
temperature for series ventilation on cooling effectiveness of different battery modules [41].

3.1.2. Axial Air Forced Convection

The structure of axial air forced flow was shown in Figure 2c [37,42]. Based on a
pseudo-2-dimensional model of the electrochemical reactions, Yang et al. developed a
3-dimensional heat and mass transfer modeling. They concentrate on the axial air forced
convection and research the effects of the interval between the cylindrical battery and air
flux on the thermal performance of the axial flow air-cooling system. They find that the
increase of the radial interval between batteries will result in a slight increase of average
temperature but benefit to the temperature uniformity of the battery system. In addition
to that, the larger air flux can reduce the temperature difference within the battery pack.
Lu et al. studied the capability of axial air forced convection regarding temperature unifor-
mity and hotspot mitigation with different flow paths and airflow rates [36]. They found
that the maximum temperature gradually decreases as the cooling channel size increases,
and the battery system with 59 vents demonstrates better performance on decreasing the
maximum temperature and the temperature difference [36].
Sometimes fins are added to the surface of batteries to enhance the thermal perfor-
mance of air-cooling systems. However, according to Chen’s research, fin-cooling can
add up to a maximum of approximately 39% extra weight to the battery, compared to
liquid-cooling methods that have the same volume [43]. In comparison, direct and indirect
liquid-cooling add approximately 2.95% and 7.16% weight to the battery, respectively [43].
Despite traditional air-cooling being considered the simplest and lightest method, adding
fins increases weight and negates these advantages. The reduced energy density of battery
systems also limits the application of fin-cooling in NEVs’ BTMS.
 Comparing to the air medium, liquid medium with higher thermal conductivity and
higher heat capacity shows better behavior in the temperature distribution of battery mod-
ules, which can meet the cooling requirements for large-scale cells discharging/charging
at high
Energies C-rates
2023, 16, 4845 [44]. However, the complexity of the liquid cooling system improves 7the
of 20
cost of manufacturing. Generally, liquid-cooling strategies can be divided into direct and
indirect cooling.
3.2. Liquid-Cooling
Comparing to the air medium, liquid medium with higher thermal conductivity and
3.2.1. Liquid-Based Direct Cooling
higher heat capacity shows better behavior in the temperature distribution of battery mod-
Generally, directules,
cooling
which is canalso
meetcalled the requirements
the cooling liquid immersion cooling,
for large-scale which has been
cells discharging/charging
at high C-rates [44]. However, the complexity of the liquid cooling system improves the
applied in transformers successfully [45,46]. Nowadays, immersion cooling has garnered
cost of manufacturing. Generally, liquid-cooling strategies can be divided into direct and
significant attention for electronic
indirect cooling. devices and NEVs.
As Figure 3 shows, the battery module is partially or completely immersed in the
3.2.1. Liquid-Based Direct Cooling
cooling medium, which can absorb heat produced by the battery directly and helps en-
Generally, direct cooling is also called the liquid immersion cooling, which has been
hance the temperature uniformity
applied of thesuccessfully
in transformers battery module [47]. Furthermore,
[45,46]. Nowadays, immersion coolingdirecthascooling
garnered
can simplify the system design
significant and decrease
attention for electronicthe system
devices complexity. For the purpose of
and NEVs.
As Figure 3 shows, the battery module is partially or completely immersed in the
reaching high heat transfer efficiency, the cooling medium for direct cooling should have
cooling medium, which can absorb heat produced by the battery directly and helps en-
excellent chemical-physical
hance theproperties, such as of
temperature uniformity high thermal
the battery conductivity,
module [47]. Furthermore,low direct
viscosity,
cooling
and high heat capacity can[48].
simplifyBecause thedesign
the system immersed battery
and decrease has the
the system risk of external
complexity. shortof
For the purpose
reaching high heat transfer efficiency, the cooling medium for direct cooling should have
circuit (ESC), the potential cooling medium should be electrically insulating. In addition,
excellent chemical-physical properties, such as high thermal conductivity, low viscosity,
non-toxic, chemical stability,
and high heat andcapacity
nonflammability
[48]. Because theshould be battery
immersed taken hasintotheaccount for envi-
risk of external short
ronmental and safetycircuit
requirements. Although
(ESC), the potential coolingthe water/ethylene
medium glycol-based
should be electrically insulating. coolants
In addition,
were widely applied non-toxic,
in indirect chemical stability, and nonflammability should be taken into account for envi-
cooling systems, the conductive characteristics of water
ronmental and safety requirements. Although the water/ethylene glycol-based coolants
restrict the application of widely
were it in immersion cooling
applied in indirect systems
cooling [49].
systems, the It is reported
conductive that common
characteristics of water
mediums for immersion cooling
restrict systems
the application are
of it in hydrocarbon
immersion oils, silicone
cooling systems oils, and
[49]. It is reported that fluori-
common
mediums for immersion cooling systems are hydrocarbon oils, silicone oils, and fluorinated
nated hydrocarbons [47].
hydrocarbons [47].

Figure 3. The liquid immersion cooling

Figure 3. The system. (a)
liquid immersion Static
cooling flow
system. (a)[47];
Static(b)
flowforced
[47]; (b) flow
forced[46].
flow [46].

Hydrofluoroethers were used in the power electronics direct cooling system as the
Hydrofluoroethers were
cooling used Nowadays,
medium. in the power electronics
excellent performance direct
pushescooling systeminto
it to be extended asBTMs.
the
cooling medium. Nowadays, excellent performance pushes it to be extended into BTMs.
3M ltd. develops Novec-engineered fluid (Novec 7000) to meet the demands of the direct
cooling system [50]. If the surface temperature of LIBs increases to the boiling point of
3M ltd. develops Novec-engineered fluid (Novec 7000) to meet the demands of the direct
Novec 7000, the fluid will boil and absorb large quantities of heat. To a certain extent,
cooling system [50]. If
thethe surface temperature
noninflammability of Novec 7000ofcanLIBs increases
reduce toLIBs’
the risks of the thermal
boiling point In
runaway. ofa
Novec 7000, the fluiddirect
will cooling
boil and absorb
system, large quantities
the properties of heat.
of the medium To a in
are critical certain extent,
determining boththe
the
cooling efficiency and thermal stability. Hirano et al. designed a battery module with
noninflammability of Novec 7000 can reduce the risks of LIBs’ thermal runaway. In a di-
10 cells connected in series immersed in Novec 7000 [51]. The battery module was worked
rect cooling system, the properties of the medium are critical in determining both the cool-
ing efficiency and thermal stability. Hirano et al. designed a battery module with 10 cells
connected in series immersed in Novec 7000 [51]. The battery module was worked in high-
rate charge/discharge conditions. They found that the immersion cooling with Novec 7000
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 8 of 20

in high-rate charge/discharge conditions. They found that the immersion cooling with
Novec 7000 as the medium shows an excellent thermal performance [51]. It maintains the
battery temperature no more than 35 ◦ C under 10 ◦ C/20 ◦ C cycling, and the temperature
difference of each battery is under 1 ◦ C [51].
Hydrocarbon-based fluids can work as the immersion cooling medium, which include
mineral oils and poly-alpha-olefins (PAO), etc. Mineral oil is a distillate of petroleum,
which attracts the attention for direct cooling because of the low cost, low toxicity, and
adequate working temperature range, as Table 2 shows. Patil et al. designed an immersion
cooling system with forced flow to cool a battery pack composed of some pouch cells [52].
They found that the maximum battery temperature can maintain 32.8, 30.8, and 30.6 ◦ C
at different flow rates of 1 L/min, 5 L/min, and 10 L/min [52]. However, the impurities
in mineral oil result in poor oxidation stability. Some impurities such as sulfur-containing
compounds will result in the corrosion of copper in electrical systems [47]. Compared with
mineral oil, PAO has a higher concentration of saturated carbon–carbon chemical bonds,
which delivers a more stable structure in turn [47]. Furthermore, the viscosity of PAO can
be controlled over a wide range. It is reported that the PAO was widely used as the base oil
of high-performance motor oil.
Silicon oil is another potential medium for the immersion cooling system. The viscosity
of the silicone oil is determined by the length of the siloxane monomer chain, similar to
hydrocarbons. Matsuoka et al. applied silicon oil as the coolant to immerse the data
center [53]. They compared the performance of 20 cSt silicone oil and 50 cSt silicone oil and
found that the natural convection was more noticeable in 20 cSt silicone oil [53].
The mixtures of water/glycol are widely used in the indirect cooling system because
of the relatively low cost and high thermal conductivity. However, the poor electrical
insulating properties restrict its practical implementation in battery immersion thermal
management system. In order to solve this problem, some researchers propose coating
the electronic components with a thin insulating layer. For example, parylene C was
coated as thin as 1 µm, and the heat flux for the water/glycol system shows better thermal
conductivity than dielectric fluids mentioned above [47]. The thermal conductivity of
dielectric medium called Novec 7000 is 0.08 W/mK, while the water-glycol (50:50) is
0.4 W/mK. It means that the Novec 7000 may be suitable for the lower power devices
because of its lower boiling point and latent heat during the evaporation process. The
improved water/glycol system is suitable for high power devices.

Table 2. Thermal and physical characteristics of different fluids for liquid cooling systems [47,54–57].

Kinematic Viscosity Density at Thermal Conductivity Dielectric Specific Heat Boiling Flash Point
Material at 20 ◦ C (cSt) 20 ◦ C (g/mL) (W/mK) Constant Capacity (J/kg K) (◦ C) (◦ C)
Water-Glycol (1:1) mixture 4.9 1.08 0.40 64.92 3473 107 111
Silicone oil 994.2 0.97 0.15 2.75 1370 140 316
Poly-alpha-olefins
5.1 (40 ◦ C) 0..80 0.14 2241 159
(Chevron Phillips)
Hydrofluoroethers
0.3 1.4 0.08 7.4 1300 34 none
(3M Novec 7000)
Mineral oil 56.0 0.92 0.13 1900 115

3.2.2. Liquid-Based Indirect Cooling

Compared to liquid-based direct systems (liquid immersion cooling systems), the
liquid-based indirect cooling system is easier to implement. As Table 2 shows, using
water and ethylene glycol blends as common coolants in liquid-based indirect cooling
systems with lower viscosity result in higher flow rates with the same pumping power.
Thus, the indirect-contact mode has been commonly employed by passing the liquid
through discrete tubing, jackets, or cooled plates [58,59]. With the addition of relatively
low cost, liquid-based indirect cooling is regarded as the most widely used BTMS
for EVs.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

indirect-contact mode has been commonly employed by passing the liquid through dis-
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 crete tubing, jackets, or cooled plates [58,59]. With the addition of relatively low cost, liq-
9 of 20
uid-based indirect cooling is regarded as the most widely used BTMS for EVs.

Cold Plate
Cold Plate
A cold plate is a flat metal plate with internal channels through which a liquid-cool-
A cold plate is a flat metal plate with internal channels through which a liquid-cooling
ing medium is pumped [10,60–62]. As Figure 4a shows, the cold plate can be installed in
medium is pumped [10,60–62]. As Figure 4a shows, the cold plate can be installed in three
three positions: embedded within the battery monomer (mode A), sandwiched between
positions: embedded within the battery monomer (mode A), sandwiched between adjacent
adjacent batteries
batteries (mode B),(mode B), or attached
or attached to the
to the sides sides
of the of themodule
battery battery(mode
module C).(mode
For modeC). For
A,
mode A, the channel size must be small enough to be integrated into the
the channel size must be small enough to be integrated into the battery components and the battery compo-
nents and
jacket shouldthebejacket shouldstable
chemically be chemically stable
to resist the to resist the electrochemical
electrochemical corrosion (Figure corrosion
4a) [63].
(Figure 4a) [63]. For mode B, the cold plates are arranged between
For mode B, the cold plates are arranged between adjacent batteries. To enhance the adjacent batteries. To
enhancedensity
energy the energy
of thedensity
batteryofsystem,
the battery system,
the cold platethe cold
with plate
low with low
thickness thickness
should should
be designed
(Figure 4a) [64]. For mode C, cold plates are typically in thermal contact with the with
be designed (Figure 4a) [64]. For mode C, cold plates are typically in thermal contact side
thebottom
or side orsections
bottom of sections of themodule
the battery battery(Figure
module4a) (Figure
[65]. To4a) [65]. Tothe
conduct conduct the heat
heat efficiently,
efficiently,
the the heatmay
heat spreaders spreaders maybetween
be placed be placedbatteries
betweentobatteries
enhancetotheenhance the heatfrom
heat transfer transfer
the
from the module to the cold plates. Because of the flat shape, the
module to the cold plates. Because of the flat shape, the cold plates are widely usedcold plates are widely
in
used in module,
battery battery module,
consistingconsisting of prismatic
of prismatic cellsof
cells instead instead of cylindrical
cylindrical cells. In general,
cells. In general, the cold
the cold
plates areplates are expected
expected to offer structural
to offer structural support support for the
for the cells andcells and integrate
integrate into the into the
battery
battery pack to ensure safety and compactness
pack to ensure safety and compactness in EVs. in EVs.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. (a) Cold plate
(a) Cold plate configuration
configuration in
in various
various positions
positions [10,57];
[10,57]; (b)
(b) the
the arrangement
arrangement of
of liquid
liquid
channel for
channel for cold
cold plate
plate [66–68].
[66–68].

Obviously, to enhance the performance of BTMS utilizing the cold plate technology,
the arrangement of channels and the liquid flow can be optimized. In general, the chan-
nel configuration can be divided into straight design, serpentine design, U-bend design,
pumpkin design, spiral design, and hexagonal design, as Figure 4b shows [66–68].
 impact of channel number, flow direction, and inlet mass flow rate on temperature rise
and the distribution of batteries during a high-rate discharge process, they developed a
three-dimensional thermal model. According to the result, an increase in the number of
channels and inlet mass flow rate can lead to a decrease in the maximum temperature of
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 10 of 20
the battery module [69]. Their further work shows that five channels were enough for a
cold plate to reduce the battery temperature within the desired range by increasing the
mass flow rate [70]. Moreover,
Huo etincreasing thecold
al. designed the width
plate of the
with channel
straight from 3 [69].
mini-channels mmTotoinvestigate
6 mm the
can reduce the energyimpact
consumption
of channel notably, which
number, flow is beneficial
direction, to energy
and inlet mass flow rateconservation
on temperature rise
and the distribution of batteries during a high-rate discharge process, they developed a
and emission reduction [70]. Furthermore, Monika et al. explored and compared the ther-
three-dimensional thermal model. According to the result, an increase in the number of
mal performance of sixchannels
distinctand
mini
inletchannel
mass flowdesigns mentioned
rate can lead above
to a decrease bymaximum
in the a three-dimen-
temperature of
sional numerical method. The result
the battery module shows thatfurther
[69]. Their the serpentine
work showsand thathexagonal
five channelsgeometries
were enough for a
cold
can greatly enhance the plate to reduce
temperature the battery temperature
uniformity within
of the battery, the desired
while range by increasing
the pumpkin geom- the
mass flow rate [70]. Moreover, increasing the width of the channel from 3 mm to 6 mm can
etry maintains a lowerreduce
pressure drop and pumping power [66].
the energy consumption notably, which is beneficial to energy conservation and
emission reduction [70]. Furthermore, Monika et al. explored and compared the thermal
Discrete Tube performance of six distinct mini channel designs mentioned above by a three-dimensional
numerical method. The result shows that the serpentine and hexagonal geometries can
Compared to the greatly
cold plate structure, the discrete tube with different configurations
enhance the temperature uniformity of the battery, while the pumpkin geometry
can transfer the heat between
maintainsliquid
a lower medium andand
pressure drop cell, too. Because
pumping of the tube structure,
power [66].
the indirect-contact mode with discrete tubes is suitable for battery systems composed of
Discrete Tube
cylindrical cells or prismatic cells [71]. Lan et al. designed an BTMs based on aluminum
Compared to the cold plate structure, the discrete tube with different configurations
mini-channel tubes to conduct the
can transfer theheat
heat produced
between liquid bymedium
the discharge
and cell, process of an
too. Because prismatic
of the tube structure,
battery, and the number the of tubes, the mode
indirect-contact flow with
rates, and tubes
discrete the flow direction
is suitable were
for battery optimized
systems composed of
cylindrical cells or prismatic cells [71]. Lan et al. designed
[72]. Furthermore, they applied this structure to the battery module as the BTMs to vali- an BTMs based on aluminum
mini-channel tubes to conduct the heat produced by the discharge process of an prismatic
date the thermal performance of it (Figure 5a) [73]. The simulation demonstrates that the
battery, and the number of tubes, the flow rates, and the flow direction were optimized [72].
mini-channel tube structure can prevent
Furthermore, thethis
they applied TRstructure
propagation in the
to the battery module
module as theeffectively,
BTMs to validate
although the TR of thethebattery
thermal monomer
performancecannot be 5a)
of it (Figure ceased [73].
[73]. The Zhang demonstrates
simulation et al. designed a mini-
that the
channel tube structure can prevent the TR propagation in the
flat tube bank arranged on the battery surface in staggered formation. It is proved that this module effectively, although
the TR of the battery monomer cannot be ceased [73]. Zhang et al. designed a flat tube bank
arrangement can reduce the requirements for flow path and flow rate in comparison to
arranged on the battery surface in staggered formation. It is proved that this arrangement
the cold plate [74]. can reduce the requirements for flow path and flow rate in comparison to the cold plate [74].

Figure 5. Structure schematic of a BTM system. (a) Schematic of the mini-channel cooling system for
prismatic batteries [73]; (b) Tesla Model S battery cooling [10]; (c) the BTMs based on discrete tubes
and aluminum blocks for cylindrical batteries [75].
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 11 of 20

The discrete tube was widely applied in the EVs’ battery system composed of cylin-
drical batteries, as Figure 5b shows. The metallic tubes were set in series as the ribbon
shape snaking through the battery module of Tesla model S, which is the common structure
for the EVs industry [10]. Moreover, some novel discrete tube structures were proposed.
For example, Basu et al. applied the aluminum elements, wrapping cylindrical batteries
as the thermal connect component to transfer the heat from cells to liquid tubes placed
on the side of the battery module, which can avoid the electrical connection when the
liquid medium leaks [63]. Similarly, Du et al. designed a BTMs based on discrete tubes and
aluminum blocks with variable thermal contact surface for the battery module composed
of cylindrical batteries (Figure 5c) [75]. Although these novel designs offer some benefits
for BTMs, they may reduce the energy density of the battery system, which limits their
large-scale application.

3.3. PCM-Cooling
PCM is a material that stores or emits heat according to the phase change process. As
an innovative solution for thermal management applications, PCM can absorb a significant
amount of latent heat during its melting process while maintaining a stable temperature
around the phase change temperature for an extended period (Figure 6a) [10,76]. To meet
the operating temperature of LIBs, the PCMs with melting temperatures between 20 to
60 ◦ C are commonly used [76,77]. Although PCMs can promote temperature uniformity for
large-scale batteries under high-rate discharge, there are some challenges to overcome, such
as low thermal conductivity, high volume change, flammability, weak structural strength,
and the risk of leakage from melted PCMs [15].
To overcome these disadvantages, the shape-stabilized PCM composed of PCM as
the dispersed material and other materials as additive material is proposed [78]. It is
reported that adding additive or frame work with different properties can improve thermal
conductivity, enhance shape retaining ability, and absorb the liquid PCMs (Figure 6b) [78].
For example, Lv et al. developed a kind of nano-silica (NS)-enhanced composite PCM
with excellent anti-leakage and anti-volume-change performance for BTMS by adding
a small amount of NS into the paraffin (PA) [79]. They present that NS with numerous
nanoscale pores ranging from 30 to 100 nm can absorb liquid phase PA effectively, which
prevents the leakage of liquid PA, increases the homogeneity, and reduces the volume
change during the phase change process [79]. To improve the thermal conductivity of
PCM-based BTMS, various materials have been introduced and studied, including metallic
particles [80], metal foam [81], carbon fiber [82], graphene [76], and carbon nanotubes [83].
Shirazi et al. prepared different PA nanocomposite structures by adding carbon nanotubes,
fullerene, and graphene, as Figure 6b shows [83]. Goli et al. developed the composite based
on PA mixed with 1 wt% graphene. The conductivity of this composite was improved by
60 times compared to the traditional PA [84]. Wu et al. developed novel pyrolytic graphite
sheets (PGS)-enhanced PA/expanded graphite (EG) composites, in which EG can absorb
the liquid PCM without leakage and form a primary thermal conductive network (TCN).
PGS attached to the battery module sides acts as the secondary TCN for the battery module
to improve the thermal homogeneity [85]. Furthermore, they proposed a copper mesh (CM)-
enhanced PA/EG (PA/EG-CM) composite for BTMs (Figure 6c) [86]. EG with a porous
structure can absorb liquid phase PA and prevent its leakage during the phase change
process [86]. CM serves as a framework to further improve both the thermal conductivity
and strength of the entire module [86]. This composite exhibits superior heat conduction
performance and temperature uniformity compared to the PA/EG plate without CM [86].
The enhanced properties of these improved PCMs are shown in Table 3 in detail.
 Energies 2023, 16, 4845 12 of 20

Table 3. The enhanced properties of PCMs for BTMS [79,80,82,83,86].

PCM/Thermal Composites Thermal Ratio of Composite Latent Heat of PCM

Additives/Thermal Conductivity (W/mk)
Conductivity (W/mK) Conductivity (W/mk) (% wt) without/with Additives (kJ/kg)
Paraffin/0.2 Silicon/- & expanded graphite/4–100 & polyethylene/- 3.5 7/5.5/30 -/77.8
Paraffin/0.21 Carbon fiber/50 0.42 0.69 242/-
Paraffin/0.2697 Expanded graphite/4–100 4.676 6.25 -/-
Paraffin/0.31 Graphite powder/2–90 0.46 12 133.1/90
x FOR PEER REVIEW
Erthritol/0.733 Nickel particle/90.3 4.72 34 (vol%) 12 -/-of 20
Hexadecane/0.15 Aluminum particles 1.25 - 236/167
Paraffin/0.25 Carbon nanotubes/3000 2.5 5 (vol%) -/-
Paraffin/0.25 Graphene/3000 0.6 5 (vol%) -/-

Figure 6. (a) Temperature characteristics

Figure 6. (a) Temperatureofcharacteristics
the PCM-based of thesystem [10];system
PCM-based (b) the structure
[10]; of the of the PCM
(b) the structure
PCM composite added with various
composite additives
added with various as the supporting
additives frame or
as the supporting thermal
frame conductor
or thermal [83];
conductor [83]; (c) the
(c) the structure of PA/EG-CM compositecomposite
structure of PA/EG-CM and the application in BTMS
and the application [86]. [86].
in BTMS

Table 3. The enhanced properties of PCMs for BTMS [79,80,82,83,86].

Latent Heat of PCM

al Conduc- Additives/Thermal Con- Composites Thermal Ratio of Compo-
without/with Addi-
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 13 of 20

3.4. The BTMS for NEVs

Table 4 briefly summarizes the performance of various BTMS on the bases of in-
tegration, efficiency, maintenance, energy density, and other factors. Actually, with the
improvement of battery packs’ integration, the traditional air-cooling mode cannot meet the
functional requirement of BTMS. Generally, each of NEVs’ subsystems has a different ideal
operation temperature range, which means that various thermal management strategies are
necessary. In addition, to utilize each subsystem, the design of BTMS should be combined
with the vehicle thermal management system (VTMS).

Table 4. Property analysis of the BTMS.

Air Forced Liquid PCM

Life ≥20 years 3–5 years ≥20 years
Ease of use Easy Difficult Easy
Integration Easy Difficult Easy
Energy density Low High Low
Maintenance Easy Difficult Easy
Temperature distribution Uneven Even Even
Efficiency Low High High
Temperature drop in cell Small Large Large
Annual cost Low High Low
First cost Low High Moderate

Figure 7 shows the development tendency of BTMS. The heat ventilation air condi-
tioning system (HVAC) is a heat pump system in essence, which can be switched between
heating and cooling modes by controlling the operation of the chiller. The outstanding
heating/cooling capacity makes it concerned. For air-cooling systems (Figure 7a), the
HVAC can be worked as the heat exchanger to reduce or increase the intake air tempera-
ture of BTMs, which can reinforce the performance of the air-cooling system [10]. For
the basic liquid-cooling system, the main pipe was connected with the HVAC system as
the secondary cooling loop to improve its performance (Figure 7b) [15]. The structural
diagram of the direct refrigerant cooling system was shown in Figure 7d [31]. The oper-
ating principle is similar to the air conditioning system of a vehicle. In this system, the
evaporator, which is parallel to the evaporator of the passenger compartment, is placed
into the battery pack. After the expansion valve, the liquid refrigerant will flow into the
evaporator to cool the battery directly via a large amount of evaporative latent heat [31].
Although this system appears simple, the strong performance makes it be regarded as a
potential candidate to compete with the liquid-cooling system [31]. Beside the HVAC sys-
tem, the heat produced by the engine could be used by connecting the liquid loop with
an engine-cooling system, which is a peculiar structure for HEV/PHEV (Figure 7b,c).
Additionally, the PCM can be combined with liquid-cooling to enhance the performance
of BTMs [15]. In this scheme (Figure 7c), the PCMs located between cells can absorb the
heat generated by cells and the liquid cooling system will remove the redundant heat
for PCMs [15]. Combined with HVAC, a complicated BTMS is formed. However, the
optimization of VTMs is a hard job, which should coordinate each subsystem and meet
the requirements of energy-saving and high efficiency.
R PEER REVIEW 14 of 20
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 14 of 20

Figure 7. The schematic of 7.

Figure BTMs for NEVs.
The schematic of (a)
BTMsAir-based
for [Link] system
(a) Air-based for asystem
cooling battery
for pack of NEVs
a battery pack of
[10]; (b) schematic ofNEVs
BTMs[10];
combing liquid-cooling and HVAC [15]; (c) schematic of BTMs combing
(b) schematic of BTMs combing liquid-cooling and HVAC [15]; (c) schematic of BTMs
liquid, PCM, and HVAC [15];
combing (d) direct
liquid, refrigerant-based
PCM, and cooling
HVAC [15]; (d) direct system [31].
refrigerant-based cooling system [31].

3.5. The Future Prospect of BTMS for NEVs

The fire hazards related to the battery system of NEVs have aroused the rising atten-
tion on battery thermal safety issues [1]. Although the BTMS based on PCM and liquid
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 15 of 20

3.5. The Future Prospect of BTMS for NEVs

The fire hazards related to the battery system of NEVs have aroused the rising attention
on battery thermal safety issues [1]. Although the BTMS based on PCM and liquid direct
cooling has superior thermal protective performance for battery packs, the cost and the
weight limits their application in NEVs.
In order to ensure the safe operation of battery systems, it is essential to develop
a comprehensive thermal safety management system (TSMS). This system should be
designed to detect potential battery failures before they occur and to provide emergency
cooling and fire extinguishing measures in the event of a thermal runaway. Additionally, a
thermal barrier should be implemented to prevent the spread of heat and flames to other
parts of the system or surrounding environment.
To achieve these goals, the TSMS should incorporate advanced monitoring and di-
agnostic technologies, which can be used to detect abnormal temperature rises, internal
pressure, and voltage, etc. Some sensors, such as fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and built-in
flexible thin-film sensors, have been proposed [87].
In the event of a failure, emergency cooling measures should be activated to prevent
further overheating and thermal runaway. This could include the use of cooling fans,
liquid cooling systems, HVAC refrigerant systems, or liquid nitrogen/liquid argon/liquid
argon/liquid carbon dioxide/R134a spray systems [13].
If a fire does occur, the thermal safety management system should be equipped with
fire extinguishing capabilities that can quickly suppress the flames and prevent them from
spreading. This could include the use of fire suppression agents, such as water or foam, or
the activation of fire suppression systems built into the battery system itself [31].
Finally, a thermal barrier should be implemented to suppress the heat transfer between
adjacent batteries during the TR process. Materials such as asbestos insulation, mica plates,
and other composites are being considered as candidates for thermal barriers [88,89]. While
a thermal barrier can provide excellent safety performance during abnormal operating
conditions, it can also disrupt the original thermal conduction path of the battery thermal
management system (BTMS). Therefore, finding a balance between heat transfer and
thermal safety is an important issue that needs to be addressed.
Overall, the collaborative design of the BTMS and the TSMS is of paramount impor-
tance for the future of battery systems. These two systems can ensure the safe and stable
operation of the battery system, which is critical for the continued growth and success of
the NEVs industry.

4. Conclusions
NEVs are environment-friendly and energy-efficient to meet the demands of green
energy conservation with the assistance of an energy storage device called a battery system.
However, the reliability, safety, and efficiency of this system are severely affected by the
operating temperature. BTMS plays a crucial role in mitigating thermal effects on LIBs,
which improves temperature uniformity across the battery pack, increases batteries’ lifetime,
and improves the safety of the battery system.
In essence, there are three primary categories of BTMS: air-based, liquid-based, or
PCM-based cooling systems. This paper provides a detailed review of the state-of-the-art
BTMS for each category and proposes a strategy for integrating BTMS with VTMS. The
air-based system has a simple structure, lightweight design, and is energy-saving, but its
cooling efficiency is low, and the temperature consistency is poor. The improvement of
air-based BTMS depends strongly on the air routes and the arrangement of cells in the pack.
Three representative air duct designs (series ventilation, parallel ventilation, and axial air
forced flow) are discussed meticulously. Liquid-based systems were widely deployed in
NEVs owing to their high heat transfer efficiency and compactness. Although the direct-
contact mode has merits of higher heat transfer efficiency and simpler structure over the
indirect-contact mode, the demand of chemical-physical property electrically insulating
property for the cooling medium restricts its application. The indirect mode is popular
Energies 2023, 16, 4845 16 of 20

for NEVs. Although PCM-based systems with low costs can provide a suitable operating
temperature for batteries, the leakage of liquid phase material and poor conductivity are
the sticking problems. Adding additive or frame work are considered. Nowadays, the
biggest shortcoming of PCM is the deadweight which will reduce the energy density of
the battery pack that is unfriendly to NEVs. Additionally, the new category integrating
BTMS and VTMS is described, in which the core idea is utilizing the heat source of each
subsystem wisely. The BTMS, engine thermal management, and HVAC should be used in
unison. Revealing the synergy mechanism of multi-thermal management subsystems has
great potential for better application in the NEVs field. In future work, the TSMS should
be integrated with the BTMS to cut off the TR propagation of the battery pack, with the
beautiful vison to manufacture safer, cleaner, and more efficient NEVs.

Author Contributions: W.L. wrote the paper; Y.Z., H.Z. and X.T. designed the structures of the paper;
H.Z. and X.T. reviewed the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, Grant
No. 5217525), and Liuzhou Scientific and technological breakthroughs and new product trial produc-
tion of major projects (Grant No. 2021AAA0103).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
LIBs Lithium-ion batteries
NEVs New energy vehicles
HEVs Hybrid electric vehicles
BEVs Pure battery electric vehicles
TR Thermal runaway
BTMS Battery management system
PCM Phase change material
VTMS Vehicle thermal management system
BMS Battery management system
ISC Internal short circuit
TSMS Thermal safety management system
ESC External short circuit
NMC Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
NCA Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide
LFP Lithium iron phosphate oxide
SEI Solid electrolyte interface
HVAC Heating ventilation air condition
PAO Poly-alpha-olefins
NS Nano-silica
PA paraffin
PGS Pyrolytic graphite sheet
EG Expanded graphite
TCN Thermal conductive network
CM Copper mesh
TSMS Thermal safety management system
FBG Fiber Bragg grating

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