MODULE 1: Apply safety measures in handling electrical components in accordance with
Standard Marine Practices
Learning Outcome/s:
• Explain the safe handling of electrical components, in accordance with the Code of Safe
Working Practices for Merchant Seafarers.
• Perform lock-out tag-out (LOTO) by using appropriate tools and PPE to isolate the Circuit
from the power
Hazards and Precaution in Electricity
including high voltage and static
What are Electrical Hazards?
Electrical hazards refer to the potential dangers and risks that are associated with electrical
systems. These hazards can cause dangers such as burns, electrocution, arc flash, electric shock,
and other serious injuries. In extreme cases, they can even lead to fires or explosions, posing a
threat to life, property, and the overall safety of a place and its occupants.
Fundamentals of Ship Electrical Safety
Ship’s large power equipment and processes utilize high forces. Electrical, mechanical,
thermal and chemical changes produce the desired operation. Very high values of ship voltage,
current, power, temperature, force, pressure etc. create the possibility of danger in an ship
engineering system.
To minimize the safety risk to personnel and equipment a system must be designed and
manufactured to the latest high standards and be correctly installed. During its working life the
equipment must be continuously monitored and correctly maintained by professionally qualified
personnel who understand its operation and safety requirements. Before attempting any electrical
work, there are some basic safety precautions you must bear in mind.
The possible dangers arising from the misuse of electrical equipment are well known.
Electric shock and fi re can cause loss of life and damage to equipment. Regulations exist to
control the construction, installation, operation and maintenance of electrical equipment so that
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danger is eliminated as far as possible. Minimum acceptable standards of safety are issued by
various bodies including national governments, international governmental conventions (e.9.
SOLAS), national and international standards associations (e.g. BS and IEC), learned societies
(e.9. IEE), classification societies (e.g. Lloyds), [Link] danger arises it is usually due to
accident, neglect or some other contravention of the regulations.
Electrical shock hazards
OHSA defines the electric shock as the physical stimulation or trauma caused by the flow of
electricity through the human body. It can occur during contact with or by being near live
(energized) electrical parts. An electric shock can occur without direct contact with
electricity. Electrocution results when death occurs from an electric shock. The most common
shock-related injury is a burn. Electrical shock hazards can be created by:
▪ Defective electrical tools: Untrained or unqualified personnel attempting electrical power
connections
▪ Improper electrical phasing: Damaged wire insulation as a result of hot work processes
▪ Inaccurate schematic drawings: Corroded connectors due to saltwater intrusion or
contact
▪ Worn or frayed electric cables: Inadequate electrical isolation, failure to test for de-
energization, and improper lockout/tags-plus application
▪ Electric cables pinched in hatches/doors: Tools and equipment not properly grounded
▪ Electric cables struck by grinders/saws: Blind-side drilling into electrical conductors
Overhead Power Lines
Overhead powered and energized electrical lines have high voltages which can cause major burns
and electrocution to workers. Remember to maintain a minimum distance of 10 feet from overhead
power lines and nearby equipment. Conduct site surveys to ensure that nothing is stored under
overhead power lines.
In addition, safety barriers and signs must be installed to warn nearby non-electrical workers of the
hazards present in the area.
Damaged Tools and Equipment
Exposure to damaged electrical tools and equipment can be very dangerous. Do not fix anything
unless you are qualified to do so. Thoroughly check for cracks, cuts, or abrasions on cables, wires,
and cords. In case of any defects, have them repaired or replaced.
Aside from this, Lock Out Tag Out (LOTO) procedures should be performed at all times before
commencing electrical maintenance and repairs. LOTO procedures are there to protect all workers
on a worksite.
Inadequate Wiring and Overloaded Circuits
Using wires of inappropriate size for the current can cause overheating and electrical fires to
occur. To prevent this, use the correct wire suitable for the operation and the electrical load to
work on. Use the correct extension cord designed for heavy-duty use.
Make sure to not overload an outlet and use proper circuit breakers. Perform regular fire risk
assessments to identify areas at risk of bad wiring and circuits.
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Exposed Electrical Parts
Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting, open power distribution units, and
detached insulation parts on electrical cords. These hazards can cause potential shocks and
burns. Secure these items with proper guarding mechanisms and always check for any exposed
parts to be repaired immediately.
Improper Grounding
The most common OSHA electrical violation is the improper grounding of equipment. Proper
grounding can eliminate unwanted voltage and reduce the risk of electrocution. Never remove the
metallic ground pin as it is responsible for returning unwanted voltage to the ground.
Damaged Insulation
Defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. Be aware of damaged insulation and report it
immediately. Turn off all power sources before replacing damaged insulation and never attempt to
cover them with electrical tape.
Wet Conditions
Never operate electrical equipment in wet locations. Water greatly increases the risk of
electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged insulation. Have a qualified electrician
inspect electrical equipment that has gotten wet before energizing i
How to respond to electrical burns
1. When approaching a person in contact with electricity, it has to be ensured that the victim is
not under current contact any more. The power of electrical power should be switched off If
possible.
2. If the current cannot be switched off, put on rubber gloves and rubber boots, or stand on an
insulating rubber mat before approaching and touching the casualty. If the victim is
entangled in electrical lines, try to remove the lines with a wooden pole, a wooden chair, an
insulated cord, or any other suitable non-metal object.
3. Check immediately for breathing and heartbeat.
4. If the casualty is not breathing, give artificial respiration.
5. If there is no heartbeat, apply chest compressions.
6. When breathing is restored, cool any burned areas with cold water and cover with a clean,
dry, non-fluffy dressing.
7. Treat as for heat burns (i.e. relieve pain, prevent or treat shock, and prevent or treat
infection).
Electrocution
Electrocution can stop the heart suddenly or cause it go into an abnormal rhythm, which can
cause immediate death. If it does not cause immediate death, an abnormal rhythm can last for
several hours, in which case it is usually not dangerous. Electrocution causes sudden widespread
muscle contraction powerful enough to cause fractures of the vertebrae or falls: always check an
electrocuted patient carefully for injuries.
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Serious problems are unlikely if ALL the following conditions are present:
1. electrocution has occurred with voltages less than 1000 volts;
2. the crew member feels well;
3. pulse rate and blood pressure are normal;
4. pupil size and mental function are normal;
5. speech and walking are normal;
6. there are no skin burns.
Electrical PPE stands for electrical Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). It refers to a range of
specialized gear and equipment designed to protect individuals who work with or around electricity
from electrical hazards. Using electrical PPE is a vital part of electrical safety protocols and should
always be accompanied by proper work practices and adherence to relevant safety regulations
and standards.
Electrical hazards can include electric shock, burns, arc flashes (sudden releases of
intense energy during electrical faults or short circuits), and arc blasts, which can
occur during tasks like electrical installation, maintenance, troubleshooting, or repair.
In this regard, the proper and safe use of PPE serves as a barrier between the
worker and the electrical energy, preventing or minimizing the impact of potential
hazards.
Aside from playing a crucial role in ensuring worker safety, here are more reasons
why PPE for electrical safety must be prioritized:
Protection Against Electrical Shock – Electrical PPEs, like insulated gloves and
voltage-rated tools, are designed to withstand and insulate against the voltage levels
present in electrical systems.
Prevention of Burns and Arc Flashes – Flame-resistant clothing and arc flash
suits help resist ignition, reduce the extent of burns, and provide thermal protection
in case of an arc flash incident.
Reduction of Electrical Contact Injuries – Electrical PPE, like safety shoes with
non-conductive soles and insulating mats, provides insulation and prevents the flow
of electric current through the worker’s body, reducing the severity of injuries in case
of an electrical fault.
Compliance with Safety Regulations – Workers and employers can ensure
compliance with relevant regulations in countries and states to maintain a safe work
environment.
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Risk Mitigation – Electrical PPE acts as an additional layer of protection, reducing
the likelihood of accidents and injuries and the overall risk associated with electrical
work.
It’s important to select the types of electrical PPEs to be used based on the specific electrical
hazards and voltage levels present in the work environment. The following are some essential
types of PPE for electrical work:
• Head Protection:
o Hard Hats – with electrical insulation properties to protect against falling objects, electrical
shock, and impact hazards
• Eye and Face Protection:
o Safety Glasses – with side shields or goggles to protect the eyes from flying debris, sparks,
and other hazards
o Face Shields – provide additional protection to the face and eyes against larger hazards,
such as arc flashes or chemical splashes
• Hearing Protection:
o Earplugs – made of foam or other materials that can be worn to protect the ears from
excessive noise levels when working with loud electrical equipment
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• Hand and Arm Protection:
o Insulated Gloves – made of rubber or other insulating materials to protect against electric
shock while working on live electrical circuits
o Rubber Lineman Gloves – provide added insulation and protection for electrical workers
involved in high-voltage tasks
o Sleeves – made of insulating materials to cover the arms and provide additional protection
against electrical contact
• Foot and Leg Protection:
o Safety Shoes – with non-conductive soles to protect against electrical shock and provide
insulation for the feet
o Dielectric Overshoes – made of non-conductive materials that can be worn over regular
footwear to provide an additional layer of electrical insulation
• Body Protection:
o Flame-Resistant Clothing – made of non-conductive materials, such as cotton, to reduce the
risk of burns from arc flashes or electrical fires
o Arc Flash Suits – consist of flame-resistant jackets, pants, and hoods or face shields to
protect against the thermal effects of arc flashes
This Code is published by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) and endorsed by the
National Maritime Occupational Health and Safety Committee, UK Chamber of Shipping, Nautilus
International and the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) as best
practice guidance for improving health and safety on board ship
5.2 Electrical and other fittings
5.2.1 Secure all electrical appliances and provide permanent connections whenever
possible. Keep all electric wiring well maintained, clean and dry. Never exceed the rated
load capacity of the wires and fuses.
5.2.2 Flexible leads should be as short as practicable and arranged to prevent their
being chafed or cut in service.
5.2.3 Do not use makeshift plugs, sockets or fuses.
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5.2.4 Do not overload circuits because this causes the wires to overheat, destroying
insulation and resulting in a possible short-circuit, which could start a fire. Show
notices warning that workers should get approval from a responsible officer before
connecting any personal electrical appliances, such as mobile phones, to the ship’s
supply.
5.2.5 Take care with devices containing rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, including
personal devices such as laptops. These devices must not be left on charge unattended
due to the fire hazards that can arise if their batteries are overcharged or damaged.
5.2.6 Inspect portable electrical appliances, including lights, before every use and
isolate them from their source of electrical supply after use. Consider measuring their
insulation resistance before first use and regularly thereafter, depending on the
location of use/risk of damage.
5.2.7 Electrical equipment used in any cargo area should be of an approved design.
5.2.8 Ensure that all fixed electric heaters are fitted with suitable guards securely
attached to the heater and that the guards remain in position.
5.2.9 When using drying cabinets or similar appliances, do not allow the ventilation
apertures to be covered up by overfilling the drying space. Inspect any screens or fine
mesh covers around the ventilation apertures and clean them regularly so that they do
not become blocked by accumulated fluff from clothing.
5.2.10 Avoid using portable heaters except as temporary heating in port, during repairs
or adverse weather. Stand the heater on a protective sheet made of a non-combustible
material to protect wooden floors or bulkheads, carpets or linoleum. Provide suitable
guards for portable heaters and position heaters away from furniture and other fittings.
5.2.11 Drying clothing on or above any type of heater is a fire risk. Personnel must
follow instructions and use only appropriate equipment, and only in designated areas.
5.2.12 Electric heaters should be installed in accordance with the relevant
regulations and instructions or the manufacturer’s guidance.
What is the meaning of lockout tagout?
The term ‘lockout tagout’ refers to a set of safety procedures that enable an operator to effectively
isolate dangerous machinery/equipment before starting with their maintenance.
Lockout refers to ensuring that we have isolated the equipment from the active system and locked
it in that position. Tagout refers to the practice of placing tags on the starting positions of
equipment. This alerts any crew that is approaching the equipment for operation or maintenance
purposes that there is a potential danger.
6-step lockout tagout procedure
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The lockout tagout procedure is a standard procedure for carrying out safe and effective
maintenance onboard vessels. While the specific steps involved in isolating different machinery
change, the core principles remain the same. The lockout/tagout procedure that follows is
universal to all machinery onboard. It consists of the following steps:
1. Preparation
2. Analysis
3. Isolation
4. Lockout/tagout
5. Residual energy assessment
6. Senior management verification
Preparation
Preparation for major maintenance tasks must begin as early as possible. On the scheduled day,
the task must be discussed with the full staff during the toolbox meeting.
They must be made aware of what machines will be under maintenance for what duration and
about the standby equipment in use. If the job is being performed by the deck side, the engine
side officials must also be kept informed and vice versa.
Analysis
The responsible officer must visit the maintenance site and analyze all the hazardous energy
sources that need isolation. These could be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical
or thermal.
If there are multiple energy sources in the equipment under maintenance, they must all be evaluated
on how they can be reliably de-energized. The officer must also analyze the hazards associated
with the multiple sources and prepare means for their control.
Isolation
Isolation refers to the effective interruption or removal of an energy source from machinery. For
electrical equipment, the breaker is disconnected. For the main engine, any of the interlocks such
as the turning gear can be engaged to prevent an unintended start.
Electrical breaker isolation
A filter cleaning on a hot oil pipe can be done by isolating the filter using a standby line. If there are
multiple energy sources, they must all be isolated.
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Lockout tagout
This is the most important step in LOTO safety. In this step, we ensure that no one except the
crew performing repairs can reactivate the equipment deliberately or inadvertently
For this step, the officer must use the equipment in the lockout tagout kit to physically lock and tag
the starting equipment.
The kit has lockout tagout devices such as
circuit breaker lockouts, cable lockouts, gate
and ball valve lockouts, hasps, padlocks,
warning tapes, and other useful equipment
that must be fixed onto machinery starting
points to restrict their operation.
After locking the equipment, the officers
place tags such as ‘Do not start’, ‘Do not
operate’, ‘Locked out equipment’ at these
starting points. These tags provide
additional information such as the name of
the person placing the tag, the senior officer-in-charge, the date of maintenance, and any
additional remarks. The tags are placed at all the locations where the equipment can be started
from.
Residual energy assessment
Many machines continue to hold a part of the energy that was present in the system even after de-
energization. This energy is known as stored or residual energy. The residual energy must be
released and the equipment must be depressurized completely prior to starting maintenance.
Proceeding without de-energizing the system could lead to serious injuries.
The stored energy could be in the form of residual electrical charge, heat, compressed air, hydraulic
liquid, steam, chemical, stored mechanical energy (spring), etc. In every machine, there are safe
methods to release this energy. For example, you could bleed out a pressurized liquid or vent out
air, steam and fumes. The responsible person must release the stored energy in a safe manner
before moving on to the next step.
Senior management verification
In the case of lockout tagout procedures being performed by junior officers, the senior officers
must verify the same before work is started. They must physically go and ensure that all the steps
have been performed satisfactorily.
One way to do this is to use a work permit system. The work cannot start unless the crew member
receives a work permit signed by the senior management (and even the superintendent for major
overhauls). This permit must then be prominently visible at the work site for the entire duration of
the job.
Advantages of lockout tagout
The LOTO safety procedure provides advantages on many fronts provided it is implemented
effectively. A half-hearted implementation is just not enough. We usually apply these procedures
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to machines that have auto-start functionality or those that can start from multiple locations. An
effective LOTO strategy provides the following advantages:
• Crew safety
• Easy implementation
• Correct use of machines
Crew safety
Crew safety is the foremost concern on any vessel. Every vessel is striving towards a zero
incidence goal. To that end, they are investing in many safety procedures. But few are as effective
as LOTO safety procedures. It is an excellent (and often necessary) method to safeguard workers
against serious injuries when working on or around dangerous equipment.
Many other safety procedures in use do not deliver as much value. LOTO addresses a very critical
safety hazard that can cause death or disability. Whenever companies have applied it on ships,
number of major and minor incidents have reduced significantly.
Easy implementation
When compared with other methods, the LOTO safety program is much easier to apply. It also
costs much less. It provides a set framework that officers can put into action almost immediately
upon receiving a LOTO kit. LOTO training is also fast and straightforward which even onsigners
can pick up competently.
Correct use of machines
Besides providing safety to operators, LOTO ensures that a machine works as per design. Starting
a machine when under maintenance can, in many cases, cause permanent damage to it. The
safeguards may not be in place, parts may be loose and auxiliary equipment such as coolant
pumps may be off during maintenance .
In marine industry, voltages below 1000 Vac (1kV) are considered low voltages, while above that are
considered high voltages. Usually, onboard vessels, the typical high voltage system is of 3.3 kV; 6.6
kV and 11 kV.
For example, on a modern container vessel with high reefer load, the power distribution system
onboard vessel consists of a main 6.6kV switchboard, main 440V switchboard and the 440V
emergency switchboard. The normal operating condition of the network is as follows:
• Both halves of the main 6.6kV switchboards will be linked, ie, the bus tie breakers will be
closed, effectively forming one 6.6kV switchboard so that any of the diesel generators can
feed the network.
• The main 440V LV switchboard is fed via the No.1, No.2 and No.3 High Voltage (HV)
6,600/450V transformers. Both halves of the switchboard are again connected via the bus
tie for normal operation.
• The circuit-breakers in the 220V feeder panel will be closed, connecting the feeder panel to
the 440/225V transformers supplying 220V to the ship’s mains.
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Generally, the HV main switchboards are of the air insulated type and the metal clad switchboard
cubicles house withdrawal type vacuum circuit-breakers. Each cubicle is divided into various
compartments for power equipment (circuit breaker, bus bar and feeder) and for auxiliaries
(instrumentation). The circuit-breakers are of the vacuum type with automatic shutters, same as the
bus tie breaker. The operating characteristics and specifications of both breakers are the same apart
from the current rating. Circuit breakers are, usually, rated at lower current and bus tie breakers are
rated at higher current (usually double). All incoming and outgoing sections have facilities for
earthing and short-circuiting for maintenance purposes.
High voltage circuits are potentially more dangerous than low or medium voltage circuits. This is not
only due to the increased voltage, but also the explosion risk and because, under certain
circumstances, high voltage circuits can retain a lethal charge even when switched off. In addition,
dangerous potentials exist some distance from the actual live high voltage conductors, the distance
being determined by the conductor voltage and the dielectric strength of the insulating materials
(including air) surrounding the conductor.
Interlocks are arranged to prevent configurations that are not allowed which may result in damage
or a safety hazard. The key interlocking system allows for safe access to high voltage equipment
for maintenance and repair. It ensures that the access to high voltage parts is prohibited in all cases,
where the correct switch off/down and earthing procedure of the main breaker is not performed
completely or in the wrong order. A specific step by step procedure is required to gain access to the
keys for the converter cubicles and filter rooms.
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Earthing of the 6.6kV main switchboard’s bus bars is carried out by means of a bus bar earthing switch
located on each of the measuring panels. In order to prevent closing of the earthing switch while the bus
bar is still live, a key interlock system is employed which ensures that the circuit-breakers for all incoming
circuits that can supply power to the bus bar must be opened and withdrawn to the test position before
the bus bar earthing switch on the measuring panel can be closed.
Each of these incoming circuits are controlled by a circuit-breaker and contain a fixed earthing switch.
An electrical and mechanical interlock ensures that the circuit-breaker must be opened and withdrawn
to the test position before the respective earthing switch can be closed. When the earthing switch is
closed, an interlock prevents that particular breaker from being moved from the withdrawn to the inserted
position.
The earthing switches are fitted with key interlocks which prevent the earthing switch from being used
with the breaker in position.
The circuit-breakers are also provided with key interlocks. When the breakers are opened and
withdrawn, they can be locked in order to prevent the breaker being inserted and the key can be
removed. The keys for the different circuit breakers are not interchangeable.
Before commencing a working procedure for disconnecting and reconnecting of a high voltage system
, you must ensure that proper tools are available for the job and a Permit to Work is available, issued
and signed
High Voltage Kit panel
The correct working procedure of Earthing a Line and Draw Out of a HV circuit breaker is as
follow:
[Link] the Circuit Breaker and turn it out to isolated position. It is not advisable to open the front
door when racking in or out the circuit breaker. It is wise to keep the door closed
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2. Check for Earthing lever. Mark shows Earthing switch open. Only when circuit breaker is in
isolated position it is possible to operated the Earthing switch
3. To close the Earthing switch, the lever to be turned clock wise. See yellow mark on earth switch
4. The earth switch is closed and there is now a mechanical interlock, which prevents the circuit
breaker to move back into service position.
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5. As an extra security a padlock can be used to shut the earthling slot
6. Behind the door to the LV compartment the safety key for interlock is located. With the Earthing
Switch closed it is possible to push the plug down and remove the key. Before the Earthing Switch
can be operated back to open position the key shall be back in position and the plug shall be lifted
up.
7. The key is now released, and the nominated person in control of work activity and others, can go
to Transformer Room.
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8. With the circuit breaker in isolated/test position open the door to the circuit breaker. Take out the
plug between the breaker and the switchboard
9. Move and adjust the trolley to correct position in line with breaker compartment The two locking
pins on the trolley shall catch the corresponding holes in the HVS and the trolley will be blocked to
the switchboard.
[Link] the circuit breaker out on the trolley.
11. Unlock the trolley and remove the trolley and breaker from the HVS
12. In case that for any reason, the circuit breaker can’t be removed as described above, an
emergency procedure must be available onboard vessel for removing the HV circuit breaker. In
this case a HV protecting equipment must be worn by the person involved in the work
After the job is finished the high voltage system shall be operated back to service position, the
involved engineer should make sure that the zone / room / panel are clean and free from tools and
any foreign object
The following procedure can apply:
▪ Disconnect the portable earthing kit using the isolating rod.
▪ Start at the work location and move towards the earthing switch in the high voltage system.
▪ All signs used for work to be removed.
▪ Open the earth switch in the HV system panel.
▪ Depending of activity carried out, the isolating level of the HV system circuit shall be
controlled.
▪ The circuit breaker to be drawn in to service position.
▪ The nominated person in control of work sign the permit and return it to the nominated
person in control of the installation (Chief Engineer).
▪ Ready for service
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Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material. The
charge remains until it is able to move away by means of an electric current or electrical discharge.
Static electricity is electricity that does not flow in a current. Static electricity generated by rubbing
two nonmagnetic objects together. The friction between the two objects generates attraction
because the substance with an excess of electrons transfers them to the positively-charged
substance. Usually, substances that don’t conduct current electricity (insulators) are good at holding
a charge. These substances may include rubber, plastic, glass or pitch. The electrons that are
transferred are stored on the surface of an object
Static electricity presents fire and explosion hazards during the handling of petroleum and tanker
operations. Certain operations can give rise to accumulations of electric charge which may be
released suddenly in electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy to ignite flammable
hydrocarbon gas/air n-fixtures; there is, of course, no risk of ignition unless a flammable mixture is
present. There are three basic stages leading up to a potential static hazard:
1. Charge separation,
2. Charge accumulation and
3. Electrostatic discharge.
Charge Separation
Whenever two dissimilar materials come into contact charge separation occurs at the interface. The
interface may be between two solids, between a solid and a liquid or between two immiscible liquids.
At the interface, a charge of one sign (say positive) moves from material A to material B so that
materials A and B become respectively negatively and positively charged. Whilst the materials stay
in contact and immobile relative to one another, the charges arc extremely close together. The
voltage difference between the charges of opposite sign is then very small, and no hazard exists.
The charges can be widely separated by many processes, such as:
[Link] flow of liquids (e.g. petroleum or mixtures of petroleum and water) through pipes or fine filters.
[Link] settling of a solid or an immiscible liquid through a liquid (e.g. rust or water through petroleum).
[Link] ejection of particles or droplets from a nozzle (e.g. steaming operations).
[Link] splashing or agitation of a liquid against a solid surface (e.g. water washing operations or the
initial stages of filling a tank with oil).
[Link] vigorous rubbing together and subsequent separation of certain synthetic polymers (e.g. the
sliding of a polypropylene rope through PVC gloved hands)
When the charges are separated, a large voltage difference develops between them. Also, a
voltage distribution is set up throughout the neighbouring space and this is known as an
electrostatic field. As examples, the charge on a charged petroleum liquid in a tank produces an
electrostatic field throughout the tank, both in the liquid and in the ullage space, and the charge on
a water mist by tank washing produces a field throughout the tank.
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If an uncharged conductor is present in an electrostatic field it has approximately the same voltage
as the region it occupies. Furthermore, the field causes a movement of charge within the
conductor, a charge of one sign is attracted by the field to one end of the conductor and an equal
charge of opposite sign is left at the opposite end. Charges separated in this way are known as
induced charges and as long as they are kept separate by the presence of the field, they are
capable of contributing to an electrostatic charge.
Charge Accumulation
Charges, which have been separated, attempt to recombine and neutralise each other. This
process is known as charge relaxation. If one, or both, of the separated materials carrying a
charge, is a very poor electrical conductor, recombination is impeded and the material retains or
accumulates the charge upon it. The period of time for which the charge is retained is
characterized by the relaxation time of the material, which is related to its conductivity; the lower
the conductivity the greater is the relaxation time.
If a material has a comparatively high conductivity, the recombination of charges is very rapid and
can counteract the separation process, and consequently little or no static electricity accumulates
on the material. Such a highly conducting material can only retain or accumulate charge if it is
insulated by means of a poor conductor, and the rate of loss of charge is then dependent upon the
relaxation time of this lesser conducting material.
The important factors governing relaxation are therefore the electrical conductivities of the
separated materials and of any additional materials, which may be interposed between them after
their separation.
Electrostatic Discharges
The electrostatic breakdown between any two points, giving rise to a discharge, is dependent
upon the strength of the electrostatic field in the space between the points. This field strength, or
voltage gradient, is given approximately by dividing the difference in voltage between the points by
their distance apart. The field strength of about 3,000 kilovolts per metre is sufficient to cause
breakdown of air or petroleum gases.
The field strength near protrusions is greater than the overall field strength in the vicinity and
discharges therefore generally occur at protrusions. A discharge may occur between a protrusion
and space in its vicinity without reaching another object. These single electrode discharges are
rarely, if ever, the incentive in the context of normal tanker operations. The alternative is a
discharge between two electrodes adjacent to each other. Examples are:
1. Between sampling apparatus lowered into a tank and the surface of a charged
petroleum liquid.
2. Between an unearthed object floating on the surface of a charged liquid and the
adjacent tank structure.
3. Between unearthed equipment suspended in a tank and the adjacent tank structure.
Two-electrode discharges may be an incentive if various requirements arc met. These include:
1. A discharge gap short enough to allow the discharge to take place with the voltage
difference present, but not so short that any resulting flame is quenched.
2. Sufficient electrical energy to supply the minimum amount of energy to initiate
combustion.
3. The nearly instantaneous release of this energy into the discharge gap.
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Whether the last requirement can be fulfilled depends to a large extent on the conductivity of the
electrodes. In order to consider this further it is necessary to classify solids and liquids into three
main groups:
The first group is the conductors. In the case of solids, these are the metals, and in the case of
liquids the whole range of aqueous solutions including seawater. The human body, consisting of
about 60% water, is effectively a liquid conductor. The important property of conductors is that not
only are they incapable of holding a charge unless insulated, but also that if they are insulated and
an opportunity for an electrical discharge occurs, all the charge available is almost instantaneously
released into the discharge.
Discharges between two conductors occur as sparks and are much more energetic and potentially
dangerous than those occurring between objects, one of which is not a conductor. In the latter
case, discharges often take a more diffuse and much less dangerous form, known as corona or
brush discharge, rather than a spark.
The second group is the non-conductors, which have such low conductivities that once they have
received a charge they retain it for a very long period. Alternatively, they can prevent the loss of
charge from conductors by acting as insulators. Charged non-conductors arc of primary concern
because they can transfer charge to, or induce a charge on, neighboring insulated conductors
which may then give rise to sparks. Very highly charged nonconductors may themselves
contribute directly to incentive sparks.
The third group is a range of liquids and solids with conductivities intermediate between those of
the first two groups. The liquids have conductivities exceeding 50 pS/m and arc often known as
static non-accumulators. Examples are black oils (containing residual materials) and crude oils,
which typically have conductivities in the range of 10,000-100,000 pS/m. Some chemicals, for
example, alcohols, are also static non-accumulators.
Answer the following question below. Use the standard format and size for paperwork
submissions.
1. What are the specific risks posed by high voltage electricity? Discuss the potential
consequences of high voltage exposure for human health and machinery
2. What precautions should be taken when handling high voltage equipment? Describe the
standard safety protocols and protective gear necessary for working with high voltage systems.
3. What is the Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) procedure, and why is it critical in ensuring workplace safety?
Note: Performance on lock-out tag-out (LOTO) by using appropriate tools and PPE to
isolate the Circuit from the power shall be conducted during Laboratory Schedule
33
