1. List various Instructions of 8086 and write how they are working.

The 8086 microprocessor supports several types of instructions, which can be grouped into
various categories like data transfer, arithmetic, logical, control, and string instructions. Here are
some examples:

Data Transfer Instructions:

These instructions move data between registers, memory, or I/O ports.

 MOV destination, source: Copies data from the source to the destination.
o Example: MOV AX, BX (Moves the content of BX into AX)
 PUSH operand: Pushes the operand onto the stack.

o Example: PUSH AX (Pushes the contents of AX onto the stack)

 POP operand: Pops the top value from the stack into the operand.

o Example: POP AX (Pops the top value from the stack into AX)

Arithmetic Instructions:

These instructions perform arithmetic operations.

ADD destination, source: Adds the source operand to the destination operand.

o Example: ADD AX, BX (AX = AX + BX)

SUB destination, source: Subtracts the source operand from the destination operand.

o Example: SUB AX, BX (AX = AX - BX)

MUL operand: Multiplies AX with the operand (only unsigned multiplication).

o Example: MUL BX (AX * BX, result stored in DX:AX)

DIV operand: Divides AX by the operand (unsigned division).

o Example: DIV BX (AX / BX, quotient in AL, remainder in AH)

Logical Instructions:

These instructions perform logical operations.

AND destination, source: Performs a bitwise AND on the operands.

o Example: AND AX, BX (AX = AX AND BX)

 OR destination, source: Performs a bitwise OR on the operands.

o Example: OR AX, BX (AX = AX OR BX)

 XOR destination, source: Performs a bitwise XOR on the operands.

o Example: XOR AX, BX (AX = AX XOR BX)

 NOT operand: Performs bitwise NOT (inversion).

o Example: NOT AX (AX = NOT AX)

Control Instructions:

These instructions control the flow of the program.

JMP address: Unconditional jump to the specified address.

o Example: JMP 0x1000 (Jump to address 0x1000)

CALL address: Calls a subroutine at the specified address.

o Example: CALL 0x2000 (Calls subroutine at address 0x2000)

RET: Returns from a subroutine.

o Example: RET (Returns from the current subroutine)

NOP: No operation (does nothing).

o Example: NOP

HLT: Halts the execution of the program.

o Example: HLT (Stops the program execution)

String Instructions:

These instructions perform operations on strings.

  MOVS: Moves a string from the source to the destination.

o Example: MOVSB (Move byte from DS:SI to ES:DI)

 CMPS: Compares two strings.

o Example: CMPSB (Compare byte at DS:SI with byte at ES:DI)

 SCAS: Scans a string.

o Example: SCASB (Scan byte at ES:DI)

 LODS: Loads a string from memory to AL/AX.

o Example: LODSB (Load byte from DS:SI into AL)

2. Explain Various Control Instructions in 8086

Control instructions manage the flow of execution in the program. These are essential for
controlling loops, function calls, and halting the processor.

NOP (No Operation): This instruction does nothing but consumes time and can be used
for debugging or timing operations.

o Example: NOP

HLT (Halt): Halts the execution of the program. It is used to stop the execution of the
program when the processor reaches a halt condition.

o Example: HLT

JMP (Jump): This instruction causes the program to jump to a specific address without
any condition. It is an unconditional jump.

o Example: JMP 0x3000 (Jumps to the address 0x3000)

CALL (Call Subroutine): This instruction calls a subroutine. The return address is pushed
onto the stack, and control is transferred to the subroutine.

o Example: CALL 0x4000 (Calls the subroutine at address 0x4000)

 RET (Return): This instruction is used to return from a subroutine. It pops the return
address from the stack and transfers control back to the calling location.

o Example: RET (Returns from the current subroutine)

LOOP (Loop): This instruction is used for repeating a block of code a specified number of
times. It uses the CX register as the counter, decrementing it on each loop.

o Example: LOOP 0x5000 (Loops to address 0x5000, CX is decremented each time)

INT (Interrupt): This instruction is used to generate a software interrupt, allowing the
processor to handle exceptional conditions or external events.

o Example: INT 0x21 (Generates software interrupt 0x21)

IRET (Interrupt Return): This instruction is used to return from an interrupt service
routine. It restores the flags and the return address from the stack.

o Example: IRET (Returns from interrupt service)

. 3 Explain Various Addressing Modes of 8086

The addressing modes in 8086 define how operands are specified for the instructions. 8086
supports several addressing modes, including the following:

Immediate Addressing Mode: The operand is a constant (immediate value) embedded

directly within the instruction itself.

o Example: MOV AX, 5 (AX = 5)

Register Addressing Mode: The operand is located in a register. This is one of the fastest
modes because the data is already in the register.

o Example: MOV AX, BX (Move the contents of BX into AX)

Direct Addressing Mode: The operand is located at a specific memory address provided
in the instruction.

o Example: MOV AX, [5000h] (Move the data at memory location 0x5000 into AX)

Indirect Addressing Mode: The effective address of the operand is stored in a register,
like SI (Source Index), DI (Destination Index), or BP (Base Pointer).

o Example: MOV AX, [BX] (Move the data pointed to by BX into AX)
 Register Indirect Addressing Mode: The effective address is the contents of a register,
like [BX], [SI], or [DI].

o Example: MOV AX, [SI] (Move the data at the address in SI into AX)

Indexed Addressing Mode: The operand's effective address is the sum of a base register
and an index register.

o Example: MOV AX, [BX + SI] (Move data from the memory address calculated by
adding BX and SI into AX)

Base-Register Addressing Mode: The effective address of the operand is determined by

adding an immediate constant to the base register (usually BP or BX).

o Example: MOV AX, [BX + 10] (Move data from memory address BX + 10 into AX)

Relative Addressing Mode: The operand’s effective address is calculated by adding a

signed displacement to the program counter (IP).

o Example: JMP 0x10 (Jump to the address 0x10 relative to the current instruction
pointer)

Based-Indexed Addressing Mode: The operand’s effective address is determined by

adding the contents of a base register (like BP or BX) and an index register (like SI or
DI), along with a possible displacement.

o Example: MOV AX, [BX + SI + 8] (Moves the data at the address obtained by
adding BX, SI, and 8 into AX)

4 Write the difference between 8087 Intel-co processor and 8086 microprocessors.

The 8087 Intel co-processor and the 8086 microprocessor are two different components designed
by Intel for specific purposes in computing. Here’s a comparison highlighting their key
differences:

1. Purpose:

 8086 Microprocessor: It is a general-purpose microprocessor designed for handling basic

computational tasks and performing logic operations, arithmetic operations, and control
functions. It is the main processor in a computer system.
  8087 Co-processor: It is a specialized mathematical co-processor designed to work alongside the
8086 processor to handle floating-point arithmetic operations. It offloads complex math
operations (like multiplication, division, and square roots) from the main CPU.

2. Functionality:

 8086 Microprocessor: It performs general-purpose tasks like executing instructions for program
control, arithmetic, and logic operations using 16-bit data paths.
 8087 Co-processor: It accelerates floating-point calculations and is dedicated to handling
floating-point arithmetic and mathematical functions such as trigonometry, logarithms, and
exponential calculations.

3. Architecture:

 8086 Microprocessor: It has a 16-bit architecture, meaning it can process 16 bits of data at a
time. It supports a 20-bit address bus, which allows it to access up to 1 MB of memory.
 8087 Co-processor: It is also built for 16-bit operations, but it does not function as a standalone
processor. It connects directly to the 8086 microprocessor and works to speed up mathematical
computations, particularly those requiring floating-point arithmetic.

4. Data Types:

 8086 Microprocessor: It primarily deals with integer data types (such as byte, word, and double
word).
 8087 Co-processor: It specializes in floating-point data types and provides instructions to handle
these types efficiently.

5. Clock Speed:

 8086 Microprocessor: The clock speeds typically range from 5 MHz to 10 MHz.
 8087 Co-processor: It runs at the same clock speed as the 8086 processor, but it performs
specific operations faster when used in conjunction with the 8086.

6. Instruction Set:

 8086 Microprocessor: It has a general-purpose instruction set, which is designed for arithmetic,
data transfer, control, and logic operations.
 8087 Co-processor: It has a specialized instruction set for performing floating-point arithmetic
and mathematical operations, including functions like sin, cos, tan, square root, and others.

7. Integration:
  8086 Microprocessor: It operates independently and does not require an additional processor
for standard operations.
 8087 Co-processor: It requires the 8086 or compatible processor to work. It is typically used to
enhance the performance of the system in applications requiring heavy mathematical
computation.

8. Usage:

 8086 Microprocessor: It is used in general-purpose computers, embedded systems, and control

systems.
 8087 Co-processor: It was typically used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical
applications where heavy floating-point arithmetic is involved.

9. Compatibility:

 8086 Microprocessor: It can operate without the 8087 co-processor, handling both integer and
basic floating-point operations with software routines.
 8087 Co-processor: It needs to be paired with the 8086 to function, as it does not work
independently.

5 What are the function of Ready, ALE, HOLD, and RESET pins of 8086
microprocessor?

The 8086 microprocessor has several control pins that serve various functions in managing the
operation and communication with external devices. Below are the functions of the Ready, ALE,
HOLD, and RESET pins of the 8086 microprocessor:

1. READY (Pin 34):

 Function: The READY pin is used to synchronize the operation of the 8086 with slower
peripheral devices or memory.
 Explanation: When the 8086 accesses memory or I/O devices, it may need to wait for the device
to respond, especially if the device is slower than the CPU. The READY pin allows the CPU to
pause the bus cycle until the peripheral is ready for data transfer.
 Operation:
o When READY is low (0), the 8086 waits for the device to be ready.
o When READY is high (1), the 8086 proceeds with the next operation.
 Usage: It is used in systems where the memory or I/O devices are slower than the 8086 CPU and
need extra time to respond.

2. ALE (Address Latch Enable, Pin 25):

  Function: The ALE pin is used to latch the address during the time when the 8086 places an
address on the multiplexed address/data bus.
 Explanation: The 8086 uses a multiplexed bus, meaning the same set of pins is used to send
both the address and the data. The ALE pin helps in distinguishing between the address phase
and the data phase.
 Operation:
o When ALE is high (1), the address is stable on the multiplexed bus and can be latched by
external devices.
o When ALE is low (0), the bus carries data, and the address phase is over.
 Usage: External latch circuits (like the 8282 latch) are triggered by ALE to store the address from
the multiplexed bus during the address phase.

3. HOLD (Pin 39):

 Function: The HOLD pin is used to request the control of the system's buses from the 8086 by an
external device (such as a DMA controller).
 Explanation: When the external device needs access to the system buses (for direct memory
access or other purposes), it can assert the HOLD signal to gain control of the bus.
 Operation:
o When HOLD is asserted (low), the 8086 will release the buses and allow the external
device to take control.
o The 8086 then asserts the HLDA (Hold Acknowledge) pin to confirm the release of the
bus.
 Usage: The HOLD pin is primarily used in systems that implement Direct Memory Access (DMA),
where peripheral devices directly transfer data to or from memory without involving the CPU.

4. RESET (Pin 40):

 Function: The RESET pin is used to reset the 8086 microprocessor and initialize it to a known
starting state.
 Explanation: When the RESET pin is activated, it forces the 8086 into a reset condition, clearing
internal registers and preparing the microprocessor for normal operation.
 Operation:
o When RESET is asserted (low), the 8086 stops executing instructions and initializes
internal registers, flags, and control lines.
o The CPU starts execution from a predefined memory address (0xFFFF0, the reset
vector).
o Once RESET is de-asserted (high), the 8086 begins normal execution from the reset
vector.
 Usage: The RESET pin is commonly used during system power-up or when there is a need to
recover from an error condition by restarting the CPU.
 6 Discuss the 80X86 family of CPU’s

The 80x86 family of CPUs (often referred to as the x86 family) is a series of microprocessors
developed by Intel that forms the foundation for most modern personal computers and servers.
The family traces its roots back to the Intel 8086 processor and has evolved through several
generations with increased performance, capabilities, and compatibility. Here's a detailed
discussion on the 80x86 family of CPUs, from the early 8086 to the modern processors:

1. Intel 8086 (1978)

 Architecture: 16-bit architecture with a 20-bit address bus, allowing it to access up to 1 MB of

memory.
 Instruction Set: It was the first member of the family and introduced the x86 instruction set,
which has since been carried forward through all subsequent generations.
 Operating Mode: The 8086 runs in real mode, meaning it operates with direct access to physical
memory addresses without virtual memory or memory protection.
 Significance: The 8086 was Intel’s first attempt at a microprocessor designed for personal
computers, and it formed the basis for the IBM PC's architecture.

2. Intel 8088 (1979)

 Architecture: Similar to the 8086 but with an 8-bit external data bus, which made it cheaper and
easier to interface with existing 8-bit hardware.
 Significance: The 8088 was widely used in the IBM PC (originally released in 1981), which helped
establish the x86 architecture as the dominant CPU architecture for personal computers.

3. Intel 80286 (1982)

 Architecture: 16-bit processor with a 24-bit address bus, allowing access to up to 16 MB of

memory.
 Operating Mode: Introduced protected mode, which allowed better memory management and
protected execution environments. This mode provided features like memory segmentation,
multitasking, and isolation between applications, which laid the foundation for modern
operating systems like Windows.
 Significance: The 80286 was used in IBM's PC/AT and made advances in system-level control,
allowing for more sophisticated operating systems to take full advantage of its capabilities.

4. Intel 80386 (1985)

 Architecture: 32-bit processor with a 32-bit data bus and a 32-bit address bus, allowing access
to 4 GB of memory.
 Operating Mode: Protected mode was enhanced with virtual memory and paging, allowing
processes to have their own separate memory spaces and providing protection against crashes.
  Significance: The 80386 was the first 32-bit microprocessor in the x86 family. It allowed for
more powerful operating systems (like Windows/NT and Unix) to run, making it a key part of
the personal computer and workstation market.

5. Intel 80486 (1989)

 Architecture: 32-bit processor with an integrated math coprocessor, improving performance for
complex mathematical calculations.
 Performance Improvements: The 80486 introduced a pipeline for instruction execution,
increasing overall performance. It also featured an on-chip cache, which helped speed up
memory access times.
 Significance: The 80486 was widely used in personal computers and workstations, providing
higher processing speeds and better handling of multitasking. It also introduced the use of
integrated cache memory, which is a standard feature in modern processors.

6. Intel Pentium (1993)

 Architecture: 64-bit internal architecture with dual pipelines (superscalar architecture), allowing
it to process multiple instructions simultaneously.
 Features: The Pentium introduced features like MMX (Multimedia Extensions) for handling
multimedia applications and branch prediction for improved performance.
 Significance: The Pentium was a significant milestone, as it was the first widely marketed
superscalar processor in the x86 family, meaning it could execute more than one instruction per
clock cycle. It was popular in both personal computers and workstations, supporting the rise of
multimedia and graphics applications.

7. Pentium Pro (1995)

 Architecture: Similar to the Pentium but aimed at the high-performance market, with more
advanced features such as dynamic execution, out-of-order execution, and larger L2 cache.
 Significance: The Pentium Pro was targeted at servers and high-end workstations, providing
better performance and efficiency. It introduced concepts like out-of-order execution that
would become common in future processors.

8. Pentium MMX (1996)

 Architecture: Enhanced the Pentium with the introduction of the MMX technology for
multimedia applications, including faster video processing and 3D rendering.
 Significance: The MMX extensions were designed to speed up multimedia and signal processing
tasks, including video and audio processing, making the Pentium MMX suitable for media-
intensive applications.
9. Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium 4 (1997–2004)

 Architecture: These processors continued to evolve, with new features like SSE (Streaming
SIMD Extensions) for multimedia processing, hyper-threading (for simultaneous multi-threading
in later models), and improved clock speeds.
 Significance: The Pentium II, III, and 4 processors were key to Intel’s dominance in personal
computing during the late 1990s and early 2000s. They provided increasing levels of
performance and supported new technologies like faster bus speeds, larger caches, and more
advanced vector instructions.

10. Intel Core Family (2006–Present)

 Architecture: With the launch of the Core series, Intel shifted to a more efficient and power-
conscious architecture, introducing dual-core and multi-core processors to improve multitasking
and performance per watt. The architecture also supported new instruction sets like SSE2, SSE3,
SSE4, and AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) for vector processing.
 Significance: The Core series, including Core i3, i5, i7, and i9 processors, has been Intel's flagship
offering for desktops, laptops, and servers, offering much higher performance and energy
efficiency compared to earlier processors. It also introduced 64-bit processing as a standard.

11. Intel Core i7/i9, Xeon (Current High-End Processors)

 Architecture: The latest Intel processors are based on a refined 64-bit architecture and built
using cutting-edge manufacturing processes (like 10nm and 7nm). These processors offer
multiple cores, simultaneous multi-threading (Hyper-Threading), and support for Intel Turbo
Boost, overclocking, AVX-512, and other advanced features.
 Significance: These processors are widely used in modern workstations, servers, and high-end
consumer PCs. They deliver massive performance boosts for workloads such as gaming, content
creation, 3D rendering, and scientific computations.

7 Compare 8085, 8086 and 8088 microprocessors with each other.

The 8085, 8086, and 8088 are all microprocessors developed by Intel, each with distinct
architectural features, data paths, and application domains. Below is a detailed comparison of the
8085, 8086, and 8088 microprocessors based on various factors:

1. General Overview

 8085:
o Introduced in 1976, the Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor.
o It is part of the 5th generation of microprocessors and is backward compatible with the
8080.
 o Commonly used in embedded systems, control systems, and simple computing tasks.
 8086:

o Introduced in 1978, the Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor.

o It is a 16-bit architecture designed to handle larger data sets and perform more complex
operations.
o It has a 20-bit address bus, enabling it to access up to 1 MB of memory.
o Commonly used in desktop systems, early IBM PCs, and embedded systems requiring
more processing power.

 8088:

o Also introduced in 1979, the Intel 8088 is a 16-bit microprocessor, similar to the 8086
but with an 8-bit external data bus.
o It has a 20-bit address bus (like the 8086), allowing it to access 1 MB of memory.
o It was widely used in the IBM PC and compatible systems due to its cost-effectiveness
and compatibility with 8-bit buses.

2. Data Bus

 8085:

o 8-bit data bus: Can transfer 8 bits of data at a time.

 8086:

o 16-bit data bus: Can transfer 16 bits of data at a time, offering better performance
compared to the 8085.

 8088:

o 8-bit data bus: Similar to the 8085, but it is still a 16-bit architecture internally, and its
external bus width is reduced to 8 bits, which affects its data transfer speed.

3. Address Bus

 8085:

o 16-bit address bus: Can address up to 64 KB of memory.

  8086:

o 20-bit address bus: Can address up to 1 MB of memory.

 8088:

o 20-bit address bus: Can also address up to 1 MB of memory, like the 8086.

4. Clock Speed

 8085:

o Typical clock speeds range from 3 MHz to 5 MHz.

 8086:

o Typical clock speeds range from 5 MHz to 10 MHz.

 8088:

o Typical clock speeds are similar to the 8086, usually around 5 MHz to 8 MHz.

5. Instruction Set

 8085:

o The instruction set of the 8085 is smaller and simpler compared to the 8086 and 8088.
o It supports operations like arithmetic, logic, data transfer, control, and branching.

 8086:

o The 8086 has a more complex and richer instruction set, supporting 16-bit operations.
o It includes additional instructions for handling 16-bit data and memory access.

 8088:

o The instruction set is almost identical to the 8086, but the 8088 processes data in an 8-
bit manner externally due to its 8-bit external data bus.
o This reduces the throughput in certain applications compared to the 8086.
6. Registers

 8085:

o It has 5 registers (B, C, D, E, H, L), a 16-bit stack pointer, and a program counter.
o It uses accumulator-based operations with 8-bit registers.

 8086:

o It has 16-bit registers (AX, BX, CX, DX, SI, DI, BP, SP) and an accumulator and flag
registers for status and control.
o Uses segment registers for memory segmentation (CS, DS, SS, ES).

 8088:

o The 8088 has the same register structure as the 8086 but works with an 8-bit external
data bus.

7. Memory Segmentation

 8085:

o No segmentation: Memory is flat and accessed directly using the address bus.

 8086:

o Segmentation is supported. It divides memory into 4 segments: Code Segment (CS),

Data Segment (DS), Stack Segment (SS), and Extra Segment (ES). This allows access to 1
MB of memory by combining a 16-bit segment register with a 16-bit offset address.

 8088:

o Similar to the 8086, the 8088 also supports memory segmentation with the same
structure of segment registers.

8. Clock Cycle Time

  8085:

o 8085 requires 3 clock cycles to fetch and execute an instruction.

 8086:

o 8086 is a pipeline processor, allowing it to execute instructions more efficiently,

typically requiring 4 to 6 clock cycles.

 8088:

o Similar to the 8086, but due to the 8-bit external data bus, its performance is slightly
lower compared to the 8086.

9. Multiplexing of Address and Data Bus

 8085:

o No multiplexing of address and data bus; it has separate lines for both.

 8086:

o The 8086 uses multiplexed address and data buses. The same set of pins is used for
both address and data, requiring external latches to separate the address and data
phases.

 8088:

o Like the 8086, the 8088 also uses multiplexed buses for address and data.

10. Applications

 8085:

o Primarily used in embedded systems, control applications, and basic computational

tasks.
o Frequently used in appliances, automated systems, and small computers.

 8086:
 o Used in early personal computers, servers, and workstations.
o Its 16-bit architecture made it suitable for more demanding tasks and larger applications
compared to the 8085.

 8088:

o Widely used in the IBM PC (and compatible systems) because of its cost-effective 8-bit
external data bus.
o Suitable for general-purpose personal computing and low-cost workstations.

11. Cost and Complexity

 8085:

o Lower cost due to its simpler architecture (8-bit) and reduced memory addressing
capabilities.
o Simpler to implement in smaller systems.

 8086:

o Higher cost due to the more complex 16-bit architecture and additional features like
memory segmentation.
o Suitable for systems requiring more processing power.

 8088:

o Moderate cost: It’s cheaper than the 8086 because of its 8-bit external data bus, making
it suitable for lower-cost applications.
o Balanced in terms of performance and cost.

8. Interrupts in Hardware and Software

An interrupt is a mechanism that temporarily halts the CPU's current execution to give attention
to an urgent task. There are two types of interrupts: hardware interrupts and software
interrupts.

Hardware Interrupt:
  Definition: A hardware interrupt is an external signal generated by hardware devices (like
keyboards, printers, or timers) to get the CPU's attention.
 Example: When a device like a keyboard needs input, it sends a signal to the CPU to interrupt its
current process and handle the input.

Software Interrupt:

 Definition: A software interrupt is generated by the software program itself when the program
needs to invoke a specific routine or system call (e.g., for I/O operations or accessing OS
services).
 Example: A program calling an operating system function for disk read/write uses a software
interrupt to invoke that system service.

Types of Interrupts in 8086:

Hardware Interrupts:

1. INTR (Interrupt Request): A general-purpose interrupt for any device requesting the CPU's
attention.
2. INTA (Interrupt Acknowledge): Sent by the 8086 to acknowledge the interrupt request.
3. TRAP: A non-maskable interrupt used for emergency situations, such as system failure or
hardware malfunction.
4. RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5: These are specific hardware interrupt lines with higher priority for
real-time responses.
5. NMI (Non-Maskable Interrupt): An interrupt that cannot be masked and is typically used for
critical errors, like hardware failures.

Software Interrupts:

1. INT n: The INT instruction is used to trigger software interrupts. n is the interrupt number that
determines which interrupt service routine (ISR) to invoke.
2. INTO (Interrupt on Overflow): A software interrupt triggered when an overflow condition
occurs.
3. INT 21h: A common interrupt for accessing DOS services in early Intel-based PCs.

9. Purpose of Using Directives

Directives in assembly language are special instructions that provide the assembler with
information on how to process the program. They don't generate machine code but control the
assembly process.
Types of Directives:

1.

Data Definition Directives:

2.

o DB (Define Byte): Defines a byte of data.

 Example: DB 20h (defines the byte value 20h).
o DW (Define Word): Defines a word (2 bytes) of data.

 Example: DW 1234h (defines the word value 1234h).

o DD (Define Double Word): Defines a double word (4 bytes) of data.

 Example: DD 12345678h (defines a double word value 12345678h).

3.

Segment Directives:

4.

o CODE: Defines the code segment.

 Example: CODE SEGMENT marks the start of the code segment.

o DATA: Defines the data segment.

 Example: DATA SEGMENT marks the start of the data segment.

5.

Control Directives:

6.

o END: Marks the end of the program.

 Example: END marks the end of the assembly program.

o EQU: Used to define constants.

  Example: MAX_NUM EQU 100 (defines MAX_NUM as 100).

Purpose of Directives:

 Memory Allocation: To allocate space for variables and constants.

 Code Organization: To organize and structure code into logical sections like data, code, and
stack.
 Control Program Flow: To control the flow of execution and segment linking.

10. Difference between Immediate and Indirect Operand Instructions

Immediate Operand Instruction:

 Definition: In immediate operand instructions, the operand (data value) is explicitly given in the
instruction itself.
 Example: MOV A, 5 (The value 5 is directly moved to the accumulator).

Indirect Operand Instruction:

 Definition: In indirect operand instructions, the operand is stored at a memory location

(address) specified by a pointer (e.g., register or memory).
 Example: MOV A, [BX] (The value at the memory location pointed by BX is moved to the
accumulator).

Key Difference:

 Immediate operand refers to a literal value (e.g., a constant).

 Indirect operand refers to a value located in memory, whose address is provided by a register or
a memory pointer.

11. Parameter Passing Mechanisms

Different methods exist to pass parameters to functions or subroutines in programming. These

methods define how arguments (parameters) are transferred to the function.

a) Pass by Value:

 Description: In this method, the actual value of the argument is copied to the function. The
function cannot modify the original value.
  Example:

o Function Call: add(5, 10)

o In the function: add(a, b) → a=5, b=10 (a copy of the values is passed).

b) Pass by Reference:

 Description: In this method, the memory address (reference) of the argument is passed to the
function. The function can modify the original value.
 Example:

o Function Call: swap(&x, &y)

o In the function: swap(int &a, int &b) → a and b are references to x and y.

c) Pass by Value-Returned:

 Description: The function receives the value of the argument, and it can return a modified value
back to the caller. The original argument is not modified.
 Example:

o Function Call: result = multiply(5, 10)

o In the function: multiply(int a, int b) → Returns a new value, but a and b are
not modified.

d) Pass by Name:

 Description: This is a more complex method where the actual expression or variable name is
passed to the function. The function evaluates the expression or variable every time it is used.
 Example:

o Function Call: expr = func(x + y)

o In the function: func(a) → Each occurrence of a is evaluated as x + y.