CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results of laboratory analyses of borehole water sampled during the dry season
from three borehole locations (A, B and C) in Gidan Kwano, with two replicates collected at each site.
Results are benchmarked exclusively against the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-water
Quality (2017). The data are organized into physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. Summary
statistics, compliance matrices, figures and a focused discussion for each parameter are presented below.

Table 4.1: Summary Statistics — Physical Parameters (Dry Season)

Parameter Mean Min Max StdDev
Temperature 28.817 28.6 29.1 0.209
Turbidity 3.35 2.85 3.85 0.408
Total Dissolved Solids 173.333 167.5 185.0 8.25
Total Suspended Solids 4.7 3.75 5.75 0.82
Electrical Conductivity 249.667 246.5 255.0 3.793
Colour 4.167 3.5 4.5 0.471
Odour nan nan nan nan

Table 4.2: Summary Statistics — Chemical Parameters (Dry Season)

Parameter Mean Min Max StdDev
pH 7.0 6.9 7.15 0.108
Iron 0.063 0.045 0.085 0.016
Nitrate 7.633 7.05 8.45 0.595
Nitrite 0.017 0.01 0.025 0.006
Ammonia 0.033 0.025 0.045 0.008
Manganese 0.013 0.01 0.015 0.002
Lead 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.001
Zinc 2.033 1.9 2.15 0.103
Fluoride 0.75 0.7 0.8 0.041
Sulphate 10.867 10.5 11.25 0.306
Chloride 19.767 19.25 20.15 0.379
Calcium 24.8 23.75 25.4 0.745
Magnesium 7.333 7.15 7.6 0.193
Alkalinity 68.75 68.25 69.0 0.354
Hardness 86.5 85.5 87.5 0.816

Table 4.3: Summary Statistics — Microbiological Parameters (Dry

Season)
Parameter Mean Min Max StdDev
Total Coliforms 7.833 6.5 10.0 1.546
Escherichia coli 2.167 1.5 3.0 0.624
Heterotrophic Plate Count 123.333 117.5 135.0 8.25
Faecal Streptococci 1.5 1.0 2.0 0.408
Salmonella/Shigella spp. nan nan nan nan

Table 4.4: Compliance of Parameters with WHO Guidelines (2017)

Parameter WHO Guideline Unit Non-compliant count (of 3 location
Turbidity 5 NTU 0
Iron 0.3 mg/L 0
Nitrate 50 mg/L 0
Total Coliforms 0 CFU/100mL 3
Escherichia coli 0 CFU/100mL 3

Table 4.5: Compliance Matrix by Borehole Location (True = compliant;

False = non-compliant)
Nitrate Nitrite Ammonia Manganese Lead Zinc Fluoride Sulphate C
True <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA>
True <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA>
True <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA>
Figures
Figure: Turbidity across borehole locations compared to WHO guideline

Figure: Nitrate across borehole locations compared to WHO guideline

Figure: Iron across borehole locations compared to WHO guideline

Figure: Escherichia coli across borehole locations compared to WHO guideline
4.1 Physical Parameters
The measured physical parameters (temperature, turbidity, TDS, TSS, and electrical conductivity) show
that all borehole locations recorded temperatures within expected tropical groundwater ranges (approx.
27–30 °C), which is typical for shallow aquifers in the region and does not represent a direct health risk.
Turbidity values ranged between 2.85 and 3.85 NTU with a mean of 3.35 NTU. The WHO operational
guidance recommends a turbidity of less than 5 NTU for effective disinfection. In this dataset, 0 of three
borehole locations exceeded the WHO operational threshold of 5 NTU, indicating potential problems for
disinfection and a need for particulate removal prior to chlorination where necessary.
4.2 Chemical Parameters
Key chemical parameters included pH, iron, nitrate, nitrite and ammonia. The pH values across all
borehole locations ranged between 6.9 and 7.15 with mean 7.0, which lies within the WHO recommended
range for drinking water (6.5–8.5), indicating generally acceptable acidity/alkalinity. Nitrate concentrations
were low (mean 7.633 mg/L) and far below the WHO guideline of 50 mg/L; no borehole exceeded the
nitrate limit. Iron concentrations had a mean of 0.063 mg/L; however, iron exceeded the WHO aesthetic
guideline of 0.3 mg/L in 0 borehole locations. Elevated iron primarily affects taste and staining, though it is
not a primary health-based limit.
4.3 Microbiological Parameters
Microbiological analysis reveals presence of total coliforms and Escherichia coli in several borehole
locations. The WHO guideline requires zero E. coli in 100 mL samples. In this dataset, E. coli counts
ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 CFU/100mL (mean 2.167), with 3 out of 3 borehole locations showing detectable E.
coli. The presence of E. coli indicates recent faecal contamination and poses direct public health risks,
including enteric infections. Total coliform detections further support the potential for microbial intrusion;
these results call for immediate sanitary inspection of borehole construction, nearby sanitation facilities,
and consideration of point-of-use disinfection measures.
4.4 Synthesis of Compliance
Overall, chemical parameters such as nitrate and pH largely complied with WHO 2017 guidelines. The
main issues identified are particulate matter (turbidity in some borehole locations) and microbiological
contamination (E. coli and total coliforms). Specifically, 0 out of 3 locations exceeded turbidity operational
guidance, and 3 out of 3 locations had detectable E. coli. These findings indicate that while inorganic
chemistry is generally acceptable, microbial safety and particulate control require attention before
distribution or direct consumption.
4.5 Public Health Implications and Recommendations
The detection of faecal indicators presents an immediate public health concern. Recommended actions
include: (1) sanitary inspections of borehole headworks and immediate surroundings to locate
contamination sources; (2) implementation of point-of-use disinfection (boiling or chlorination) where E.
coli is detected; (3) particulate removal (filtration/sedimentation) for high turbidity wells before disinfection;
(4) community education on latrine siting and waste disposal; and (5) periodic monitoring including wet
season sampling to capture seasonal variability. Further, for boreholes with high iron, aesthetic treatments
or blending may be considered to improve acceptability.

Conclusion
Dry-season analysis of the three borehole locations in Gidan Kwano shows generally acceptable chemical
quality with respect to WHO 2017 guidelines for parameters such as pH and nitrate. However, issues of
turbidity and microbiological contamination (E. coli, total coliforms) were identified in multiple locations,
posing a risk to consumers. Immediate sanitary interventions, point-of-use disinfection, and follow-up
wet-season monitoring are advised to ensure long-term safety of the groundwater supply.