Dr. K.

Sandeep,
Associate Professor,
Dept of IT,
DIET.

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 UNIT I:
Introduction: Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN, Network Topologies.

Reference models- The OSI Reference Model- the TCP/IP Reference

Model – A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models, OSI Vs
TCP/IP, Lack of OSI models success, Internet History.

Physical Layer –Introduction to Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable,

Coaxial cable and Fiber optic cable and unguided media: Wireless-Radio
waves, microwaves, infrared.

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Components & Data Representation
Protocol : It represents an agreement between the communication
devices

Data Representation: text, audio, video, images, and numbers

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Data Flow :Simplex
• Communication is unidirectional
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit ; the other can only
receive

• Example : keyboard, monitor

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Half-duplex
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
• Example : walkie-talkies

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Full-duplex
• Both station can transmit and receive simultaneously
• Example : telephone network

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 NETWORK
• Network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, microwaves, IR,
communication satellites or any medium which can transport a signal
carrying information.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.

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• DEVICES :
1. Repeaters repeats signals that travels via long distance
2. Hub, a distributor that has a lot of ports which connected to
computers.
3. Modem, a device that modulates a digital signal onto analog signal
for transmission over telephone lines
4. Switches, like a hub but it transmit packets to hop/destination
5. Bridge, it is used to connect two similar LANs.
6. Routers, choose the best path to transmit the packet.
7. Gateway,is a network node connecting two networks that use
different protocols.
Can take several forms -- including routers or computers --and can
perform a variety of tasks
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Advantages
• Increased Speed
• Reduced cost
• Improve Security
• Centralized Software Managements
• Electronic Mail
• Flexible Access

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Disadvantages
• High cost of installation
• Requires time for administration
• Failure of server
• Cable faults

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Physical structures : Point-to-point
connection
• It provides a dedicated link between two devices
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices

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Multipoint connection
• More than two specific devices share a single link
• Capacity of the channel is shared , either spatially or temporally: If
user must take turns, it is a timeshared
• Spatially : several devices can use link simultaneously

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 USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

[Link] Applications
• Resource sharing
• Client server model
• Electronic mail
• Desktop sharing
• E commerce.

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[Link] Applications
• Communication
• Entertainment
• Education
• Finances
• Health and wellness.
[Link] Users
• Text messaging or texting
• Smart phones,
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• m-commerce- mobile shopping, banking, payments.
• NFC (Near Field Communication)
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4. Social Issues
• political
• privacy and security
• ethical issues.

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 Network Criteria
• Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users

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• Performance – is measured using transit time and response time.
• Transit time – time taken to transfer data
• Response time – time elapsed from request to receiving of data.
• These depend on no. of factors like no. of users, type of medium,
capability of H/W, Efficiency of S/W.
• Throughput - Amount of data moved successfully from one place to
another.
• Delay-the time it takes for a data packet to travel from the source to
the destination

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• Traffic Congestion-occurs when a network is overloaded with data
traffic, leading to slower speeds and reduced performance.

• Reliability – is measured by
• frequency of failure, and time taken to recover from failure

• Security-
• Protected data from unauthorized access, protected data from
damage, and implementing necessary measures.

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LAN,WAN,MAN

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Types of Computer Networks
LAN (Local Area Network)
• Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small
office.
• It is inexpensive.
• It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology.
• Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or
cables acting as nodes.
• Transfer of data is fast and is highly score.
• Ex: home WiFi networks, small business networks, and networks
within schools or universities.

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MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• A network that can be connected within a city.
• It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI.
• It has a higher range.
• This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various
organizations.
• Ex: cable tv network, Public Wi-Fi network in a city, Government
agency networks, Healthcare networks, Telecommunications
networks, Large businesses with multiple locations.

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MAN- (Metropolitan Area Network)

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WAN – Wide Area Network
• A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people.
• Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN.
• Internet is the biggest WAN in the world.
• Mostly used by Government Organizations to manage data and
information.
Ex: the internet, corporate networks connecting multiple offices,
banking networks linking branches and ATMs, Mobile networks 4G/5G.

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WAN – Wide Area Network

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LAN,WAN,MAN

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PAN (Personal Area Network)
• The smallest computer network.
• Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red
enables devices.
• It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres.
• It covers an area of upto 30 feet.
• Ex: mobile devices and appliances, such as tablets, printers,
keyboards, barcode scanners, game consoles, laptops and other
personal devices.

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VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a
private network.
• VPN protects its users by encrypting their data and masking their IP
addresses.
• This hides their browsing activity, identity, and location, allowing for
greater privacy and security.
• These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to
ensure only authorized users can access.
• Ex: Remote access VPN, Cloud VPN, etc.

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Connections
• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

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Network Topologies
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.
There are two major categories of Network Topology.
• Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the
physical medium for the transmission of data.
Ex: Bus topology, star topology, ring topology, mesh, tree, hybrid.
• Logical Network Topology refers to the transmission of data between
devices present in the network irrespective of the way devices are
connected.
Ex: logical bus, logical ring.

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Bus Topology

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Bus Topology
• Point to point network.
• Signal is passed along the ring until it reaches destination.
• Each device consists of repeaters.
• When the device receives the signal from another, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them.
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Low-cost
Disadvantages:
• Uni directional
• Signal interference
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Ring Topology

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Ring Topology
• Point to point network.
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• Signal is passed along the ring until it reaches destination.
• Each device consists of repeaters.
• When the device receives the signal from another, its repeater regenerates
the bits and passes them.
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Reliable
Disadvantages:
• Uni directional
• Failure of one network leads to failure of overall network.

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Star Topology

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Star Topology
• Most popular topology in network implementation.
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, called hub.
• The controller acts as an exchange.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
Advantages:
• Less expensive than mesh.
• Robust, easily expandable, network control
Disadvantages:
• Whole topology depends on hub.
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Tree Topology

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Tree Topology
• It merges the features of both star and bus topologies.
• It includes a node known as the root that connects to one or more-star
networks called branches.
• Each branch can further extend into sub-branches, forming a structure
resembling that of a tree.
• Only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission i.e;
parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages
• Easily expandable, manageable, error detection & correction.
Disadvantages
• Difficult troubleshooting, high cost.
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Mesh Topology

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Mesh Topology
• mainly used for wireless networks, ex: internet
• Mesh –dedicated – traffic between only connected devices
• N nodes – each require N-1 links.
So Total N* (N-1)/ 2 duplex links
• Every device must have n-1 ports for linking
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication.

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Advantages:
• Reliable
• Fast communication
• Traffic problems
• Privacy & security

Disadvantages:
• Cost
• Difficult to manage , Ex: Telephone Regional Office
• Less efficiency

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Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
[Link] Mesh Topology: each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
[Link] Mesh Topology: not all but certain computers are connected
to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

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Hybrid Topology

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Hybrid Topology
• When two more types of topologies combine, they form a Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes
to transfer the data.
• If similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology.
For ex: if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and
bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

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Advantages
• Reliable
• Scalable
• Flexible
• Effective

Disadvantages
• Complex design
• Costly Hub
• Costly infrastructure

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The OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI).
• Developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
• Model for understanding and developing computer-to-computer
communication architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
• It is not a protocol.
• Developed in the 1980s.
• Divides network architecture into seven layers.

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Open System Interconnection
 Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions.
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive
functions.
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer.
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers.
 Layer 1,2,3 are the network support layer, deals with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device to another.
 Layer 5,6,7 are the user support layer, allow the interoperability among
unrelated software.
 Layer 4 ensures that what the lower layer have transmitted is in a form that
the upper layers can use.

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Sending a letter

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7 layers of OSI Model

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Physical Layer
• The physical layer transmits raw bits from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• Sender sends a 1 bit → receiver receives a 1 bit but not as a 0 bit.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions:
Line Configuration, Data Transmission, Topology, Signals

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Physical Layer

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Data Link Layer
• It is the second layer from bottom of OSI model.
• Data link layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames
within the same local network..
(By masking real errors so network layer doesn't see them→ most
complex layer of the OSI model )
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or
more devices.

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Data Link Layer

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Ex:

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Moving frames from one node to other

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Sub-Layers of The Data Link Layer
Logical Link Control (LLC)
• This sublayer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services,
• LLC is responsible for providing error messages and
acknowledgments as well.

Media Access Control (MAC)

• The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets
from the Network layer, it divides packets into frames,
• Sends those frames bit-by-bit to the physical layer.

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Functions:

• Framing- raw bits to packets

• Physical addressing-header contains destination address
• Error Control- adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check)
• Flow control- constant data rate is maintained on both the sides
• Access control- determines which device has control at given time.

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Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the original source to the destination.
• It also handles routing, finding optimal path.
• Network Layer receives the data from the upper layer and converts
them into packets.
Functions:
Internetworking
Local Addressing
Routing
Packetizing
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Network Layer

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Source to destination delivery of packets

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Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted
in the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-
to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.

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Transport Layer

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Functions:
• Service point or Port addressing – one process to other process
• Segmentation and reassembly- source and destination
• Connection Control- connection oriented or connectionless.
• Flow control - end-to-end
• Error control-messages are free from error

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Session Layer
The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
[Link] control: Session layer allows the communication between two
processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
[Link] and Recovery : Session layer adds some checkpoints
/tokens when transmitting the data in a sequence.
• If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and Recovery.

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Session Layer

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Presentation Layer
This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a
data translator for the network.
• Design to the handle the syntax and semantic of the information
exchanged between 2 systems.
Ex: banking records.
Functions:
• Translation
• encryption
• decryption
• compression

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• Translation ( EBCDIC Code- text file ASCII- coded file)
• Encryption and Decryption : to carry sensitive info
• Compression : it reduces the number of bits contained in the
information

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Presentation Layer

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Application Layer
• The top-most layer in OSI model.
• It acts as the interface between the user (or user applications) and the
network.
Functions:
• Data Representation -request and response from sender to receiver.
• Mail services- send and store files.
• File transfer, access and management- retrieve and request files from
remote server.
• Directory services - centralized databases, organizing and storing
information .
• Accessing the World Wide Web- http
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Application Layer

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Exchange using OSI model

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Application data stream
data stream data
Presentation
data stream
Session
Transport data data data Segments

Network Network header data packets

Data link Frame H Network H data From trailer Frames

Physical 1110111 0111 011111101 Bits

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TCP/IP Reference Model
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:

Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, and Application.

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Physical and data link layers :
• TCP/IP does not specify any protocol
• A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a LAN or WAN.
Network Layer:
• TCP/IP supports the internetworking protocol - IP, uses 4 supporting
protocols;
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

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Internetwork Protocol
• The internetworking protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used
by the TCP/IP protocols.
• It is a connectionless protocol .
• IP provides no error checking or tracking.
• IP transports data in packets called datagram’s, each of which
transported separately.
• datagram's can travel along different routes and can arrive out of
sequence or be duplicated .
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams at destination

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[Link] (Address Resolution Protocol) :
• it is used to associate a logical address with physical address
• Each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address,
network interface card (NIC)
• It is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known

[Link] (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

• It allows a host to discover its internet address when it knows only its
physical address

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3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol ):
it is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to the sender

4. IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol) :

It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a
group of recipients

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Transport Layer
• It was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols
• TCP & UDP
• IP is a host-to-host protocol, means deliver a packet from physical
device to another.
• TCP & UDP are transport level protocol responsible for delivery of message from
process to another process

User datagram protocol (UDP) :

it is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol
• Stream , in this context, means connection oriented
• At the sender end, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units
called segments
• Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt.

Stream control Transmission protocol (SCTP):

It provides a support for newer applications such as voice over the
internet

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Application Layer
• The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.

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 Addresses in TCP/IP
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

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 Physical addresses
• It is also known as the link address
• It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
• Physical addresses have authority over the network
• The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the
network
• Example : Ethernet uses a 6byte (48bit) address network
interface card (NIC)
• Local talk (Apple) 1byte dynamic address that change each
time

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 Example

A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with

physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link
(bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with
physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with
physical address 87 is the receiver.

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Logical Addresses
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of physical networks
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely
• Logical address in the internet is currently a 32bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to the internet
NOTE:
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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Example:
• Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has
a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection.
In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router,
however, is connected to three networks (only two are shown
in the figure). So each router has three pairs of addresses, one
for each connection.

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Port Addresses
• The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of
data to travel from source to destination
• Computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same
time
• Example : Computer A can communicates with B by using TELNET.
At same time , A can communicates with B by using FTP.
• For this processes to receive data simultaneously, process is called port
address

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Example:
• Figure shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three processes at this time with port
addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes
at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change from hop to
hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

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 Port addresses

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Specific address

• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed

for that specific address
• Example : e-mail address (x@[Link], y@[Link]
• Universal resource locator (URL) ([Link])

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Comparison of OSI & TCP
Similarities
• Both the models are based on the concept of a stack of protocols.
• The functionality of the layers are roughly similar.
• In both the models, the layers up through and including transport layer,
will provide an end-to-end network independent transport service.
• In both the models, the layers above the transport layer are application
oriented.
• Both the models have Network , Transport, Application layers.

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TCP/IP and OSI model

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Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Full Form,
Systems Interconnection, Control Protocol/Internet Protocol,
Layers
It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

Approach It is vertically approached It is horizontally approached

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model guaranteed in TCP/IP Model

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 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Replacement of tools and changes can Replacing the tools is not easy
placement
easily be done in this model as it is in OSI Model

It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model
Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but examples

Protocol include HTTP (Application), SSL/TLS
HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP, Ethernet
Example (Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP
(Network), Ethernet (Data Link)

Built into Data Link and Transport

Error Handling Built into protocols like TCP
layers

Both connection-oriented (TCP) and

Connection TCP (connection-oriented),
connectionless (UDP) protocols are
Orientation UDP (connectionless)
covered at the Transport layer
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Lack of OSI models success

• OSI model couldn't compete with TCP/IP model and failed in getting
wider acceptance.

• One of the main reasons behind the failure of OSI model and wider
acceptance of TCP/IP model was because big global networks like
internet started running big global networks like internet started
running.

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Internet history
•Early Days (1960s-1970s):
The concept of packet switching, where data is broken into smaller
packets for transmission, emerged as a more efficient alternative to
circuit switching.
This led to the creation of ARPANET, a network connecting research
institutions, to the internet.
•Standardization and Growth (1970s-1980s):
The development and standardization of TCP/IP protocols allowed
different networks to communicate seamlessly.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the NSFNET, a high-
speed backbone network, further expanding the internet's reach.
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•Commercialization and the World Wide Web (1990s):
The lifting of restrictions on commercial use in the early 90s spurred
rapid growth.
Tim Berners-Lee's invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, with its
use of hypertext and URLs, revolutionized how users accessed and
shared information online.

•Modern Internet (2000s-Present):

The internet continued its rapid expansion, driven by the rise of
broadband, personal computers, and mobile devices.
Social media, e-commerce, and a vast array of online services have
become common place, transforming how people live, work, and
interact.
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 UNIT-I
Physical Layer
Introduction to Guided Media
• Twisted-pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optic cable.
Unguided media:
• Wireless Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared.
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Introduction to guided Media
• The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine
to another.
• Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
• Guided Media that provide a conduit from one device to another.
• Signals travelling along any of these media is directed and contained
by the physical limits of the medium.
Examples are:
• Twisted-pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber-optic cable
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Twisted-Pair Cable
• Uses two metallic (copper) conductors with individual plastic insulator each.
• Accepts and transports signals in the form of electric current.
• One wire is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used as a
ground reference.
• The receiver uses the difference between the two signal levels in the wires.
• Noise or crosstalk effect is balanced by twisting the wires.
Twisted pair cable
[Link] Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication
[Link] Twisted Pair:
A shielded twisted pair is a cable, contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

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The categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed
data.
Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance
communication.
Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps

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Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of
attenuation.

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Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial Cable is a type of guided media made of Plastics, and copper
wires which transmit the signal in electrical form rather than light
form.
• Coaxial cable is also known as coax.
• The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals .
• The insulator is used to provide insulation to the copper conductor.
• The insulator is surrounded by a braided metal conductor -helps to
prevent the interference of electrical signals and prevent cross talk.
• This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to
provide extra safety to the cable.

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Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
1. The data can be transmitted at high speed.
2. It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
3. It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

1. It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
2. If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.

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Fiber Optic Cable

➢Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for

communication.
➢Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
➢The plastic coating protects the optical fiber from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
➢Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

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Single mode fiber

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Refractive Index
Step-index optical fiber

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Graded index optical fiber

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 Introduction to Unguided Media
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission
media.
• No physical medium is required for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.

Features:
•The signal is broadcasted through air
•Less Secure
•Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
➢Wireless-Radio Waves
➢Micro Waves
➢Infrared

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(i) Radio Waves
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radio waves for transmission.

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(ii) Microwaves
It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e. sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other.
The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the
antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.