The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2004) 33.

1: 2–13
doi: 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.002.x

Deep-water Archaeological Survey in the Black Sea:

C. Ward &Publishing
Blackwell R. D. Ballard:
Ltd Deep-water archaeological survey in the Black Sea

2000 Season
Cheryl Ward
Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-7772 USA

Robert D. Ballard
Institute for Archaeological Oceanography, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island,
Narragansett, RI 02882-1197 USA

Recent archaeological survey by sidescan sonar and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) resulted in the discovery of one of the
best-preserved seagoing ships from antiquity in the anoxic waters of the Black Sea. Three shipwrecks from the 4th to 6th
centuries AD, with cargoes of shipping jars from Sinop, Turkey, were found at depths of about 100 m; the fourth sits upright
on the sea-bed, buried to deck level in sediment. A description of each site and identification of visible site components is
followed by a discussion of directions and possible implications of future research.
© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

Key words: maritime archaeology, shipwrecks, Black Sea, ROV, Sinop, ship construction.

R
ecent survey work in the Black Sea as non-destructive evaluation of sites in a marine
part of a long term project developed environment more hostile than most. The anoxic
by the Institute for Exploration (IFE) environment of the Black Sea, hostile to many
resulted in the discovery of one of the best- biological organisms that destroy wood in
preserved seagoing ships from antiquity (Ballard oxygenated waters, provides an excellent testing
et al., 2001). This ship, found at a depth of 320 m, site for deepwater archaeological survey. This
and three others located between 85 and 101 m report describes the methodology used to locate
date to the 4th to 6th centuries AD, and may four ships in 2000, presents preliminary conclu-
provide information about both technological sions about those vessels, and discusses directions
change and trade in the Black Sea during a period and possible implications of future research.
of political, social, and economic transition
through the study of ship construction techniques.
Historical and archaeological studies indicate
Background
that the area of Sinop had developed long- In 1976 Willard Bascom suggested that the deep,
distance exchange as early as 4,500 BC, and that anoxic waters of the Black Sea (Fig. 1) might
seaborne traffic in the region was most intense preserve a treasure trove of ships from antiquity
during the period of late antiquity, between the because typical wood-devouring organisms could
2nd and 7th centuries AD (Hiebert et al., 1997; not survive there (1976: 38). At depths greater
Hiebert, 2001). Remote examination of four ship- than 150 m the Black Sea contains insufficient
wrecks from the latter period has provided the oxygen to support most familiar biological life
direct evidence for Black Sea maritime trade so well forms; a suboxic zone in the next 20 to 50 m has
attested by the distribution of ceramics on land. both low oxygen and low sulphides, and in the
The application of both traditional and anoxic layer below 200 m water chemistry studies
innovative remote sensing methods to deep-water consistently document relatively high concentrations
archaeological survey supports standard archae- of sulphides and low oxygen (Murray et al., 1989;
ological approaches to site survey and allows the Codispoti et al., 1991).

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society.

Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

watercourses, as well as a Bronze Age settlement

on one of Sinop’s high points and a number of
later sites (Hiebert et al., 1997). A rich record
of farming groups from the time of Greek
colonisation through the medieval period
(Kassab Tezgör and Tatlican, 1998) adds to
previous archaeological knowledge of the region,
and has suggested to Hiebert (2001) that the
Sinop sites exhibit specialised adaptation to the
coastal maritime environment.
Underwater surveys of Sinop’s anchorage,
portions of the submerged coastline, and ex-
ploration of deeper waters along possible trade
routes linking Sinop to the Crimean peninsula
and towards Byzantium to the west took place
Figure 1. The Black Sea, with approximate locations of ship each year from 1998 to 2000 with a fourth season
finds and Sinop. in 2003. A side-scan sonar survey of waters less
than 60 m deep near Sinop harbour in 1998
Originally a land-locked fresh water lake, the produced several dozen anomalies examined
Black Sea was inundated with salt water from through images provided by camera-carrying
the Mediterranean Sea during the Holocene. ROVs in 1999 (Mindell et al., 1998; Ward, 2000).
The influx of salt water essentially smothered the Most of these low-relief anomalies proved to be
fresh water below it because a lack of internal colonies of large-shelled molluscs, but a late 18th-
motion and mixing meant that no fresh oxygen century AD iron anchor, a large jar, and the
reached the deep waters (Oguz et al., 1993). The remains of a 19th-century steamship were also
influx probably took place about 7000 years ago. identified (Fig. 2). Work north-east of Sinop
Its speed and intensity are debated (Ryan et al., focused on a search for the ancient coastline of
1997; Uchupi and Ross, 2000; Görür et al., 2001; the Black Sea, and included sampling by
Aksu et al., 2002), but the extinction of fresh dredging (Ballard et al., 2000).
water molluscs and replacement by saline species
seems to have occurred between 7460 and 6820
BP (uncorrected radiocarbon years) according to
2000 survey season
radiocarbon dates from mollusc shells near Sinop In 2000, the archaeological survey conducted
collected on a 1999 Black Sea expedition (Ballard under water focused on exploration of the
et al., 2000). sea-bed about 15–30 km west of Sinop, with
The collaborative efforts of the Institute for additional deep-water survey east and north of
Exploration, the University of Pennsylvania, the promontory. The project had several goals.
University of Rhode Island Graduate School We sought to discover whether human habitation
of Oceanography, the Massachusetts Institute sites could be identified on the ancient submerged
of Technology, and the Institute of Nautical landscape, to examine the sea-bed for shipwrecks,
Archaeology resulted in a programme of to test the hypothesis that the anoxic waters
terrestrial and marine survey focused on Sinop, below 200 m would protect shipwrecks from
Turkey (Ballard et al., 2001). The potential for the expected biological attacks on organic
wood preservation in the deep waters of the components, and to seek data about an ancient
Black Sea (up to 2210 m deep), and the long trade route between Sinop and the Crimea
occupation and central role Sinop played in indicated by terrestrial archaeological remains.
regional trade, including extensive exchange with Side-scan survey in search of features such as
settlements on the Crimean peninsula made this relic stream beds in the submerged landscape
region attractive for testing several hypotheses. and shipwrecks, followed by target evaluation
The Black Sea Trade Project, a multi-year through examining images obtained by cameras
terrestrial survey near Sinop, led by Fredrik on an ROV, were the season’s primary activities
Hiebert, Owen Doonan and Alex Gantos, (Coleman et al., 2000). A DSL-120 phased-array,
identified small, relatively isolated, Neolithic 120 kHz side-scan sonar developed by the Woods
sites on elevated areas that often overlooked Hole Oceanographic Institution was towed at

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 3

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 33.1

and thrusters, which provide it with independent

movement. Argus easily located acoustic targets
originally identified by the DSL-120 with a 675
kHz fan-beam scanning sonar mounted directly
on the tow sled.
Little Hercules is tethered directly to Argus,
reducing the effects of ship motion and cable
drag on the ROV. Little Hercules carries cameras
capable of providing extremely high quality
images; it also has a variety of sensors for
pressure, depth, and compass heading, and
thrusters for movement both laterally and
vertically. It carries the same obstacle-avoidance
sonar, which functioned effectively in quickly
locating desired acoustic targets. Both vehicles
worked well, and provided outstanding visual
images (Fig. 3). Precise measurement of ar-
chaeological materials was not a goal during the
2000 season, so all measurements provided here
were estimated through use of depth sensors or
comparison to objects of known size.

Shipwrecks A, B, C
More than 200 acoustic targets were identified by
the DSL-120, and 52 were subsequently inspected
by Little Hercules and Argus. Three shipwrecks
(A-C) discovered west of Sinop during the 2000
season date to the Late Roman or early Byzantine
period, probably between the 4th and late 6th
centuries AD. Although Sinop served as a
primary trade node in the Black Sea, the wrecks
we located are west of the trade route predicted
by the preponderance of Sinopian ceramics on
the Crimean peninsula (Ballard et al., 2001: 608).
Figure 2. Acoustic image of the wreck of a 19th-century On wrecks A-C, ovoid mounds of distinctive
steamship east of Sinop harbour (Courtesy D. Mindell; carrot-shaped shipping jars of a style associated
copyright Marine Sonic Technologies). with Sinop retain much of their original stacking
pattern. The jars may have carried a variety of
about 40–50 m above the sea-bed, and provided well-attested Black Sea products such as olive oil,
returns over 600 m, which enabled relatively honey, wine, or fish sauce, but the contents are
small acoustic anomalies (shipwreck-sized) to be presently unknown as no artefacts were recovered
identified. from any of these wreck sites in 2000.
After anomalies were evaluated, we selected Shipwreck A appeared in the video images
targets for visual inspection and photography from Argus as Little Hercules’ lights illuminated
using a combination of two vehicles: the optical a wall of shipping jars standing about 2 m above
tow sled Argus and the remotely-operated vehi- the sea-bed (Fig. 4). It is an isolated hump on the
cle Little Hercules, both developed by IFE sea-bed at a depth of 101 m. The mound appears
(Coleman, 2002) and operated from Northern to be about 20 m long and 10 m wide. Shipping
Horizon, a research vessel with direct positioning jars on this site most closely correspond to 4th to
capability. Argus acts as a platform for lights and 5th century AD examples from an amphora kiln
cameras, including a 3-chip video camera, an near Sinop (Kassab Tezgör and Tatlican, 1998).
electronic still camera, and a 35-mm colour still Because the amphoras highest on the mound
camera. Shipboard operators control its cameras have fallen over without displacing those still

4 © 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

Figure 3. a) Optical tow sled Argus; b) imaging ROV Little

Hercules (Photo courtesy Institute for Exploration/Institute
for Archaeological Oceanography-URI/GSO). Figure 4. Partial photomosaic of Shipwreck A from elec-
tronic still camera images. (Courtesy Institute for Explora-
standing in rows beneath them, it is likely that the tion/Institute for Archaeological Oceanography-URI/
GSO).
ship settled upright on the sea-bed, gradually
being both buried in and filled with sediment as
exposed wood was devoured by the larva of Byzantine shipwreck and dating from the 5th to
Teredo navalis, the shipworm. late 6th century AD are present (van Doorninck,
Shipwreck B, covering an area approximately 2002). The presence of exposed timbers, some of
24 m long and 12 m wide at 85 m depth, also which are partially buried in the mound, is
consisted of a large pile of shipping jars, but intriguing, but at this time it is unclear whether
several types are visible, as are multiple timbers any of them belong to the original ship. No
protruding from within the mound and on it fastenings or other features are apparent.
(Fig. 5). In addition to the Sinop-style jars, Two discrete and mostly buried piles of carrot-
several LR1 (hour-glass shaped) amphoras shaped shipping jars at a depth of 85 m comprise
similar to examples excavated on the Yassiada shipwreck C (Fig. 6). The visit to this site was

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 5

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 33.1

Figure 5. Photomosaic of part of Shipwreck B from electronic still camera images (Courtesy Institute for Exploration/
Institute for Archaeological Oceanography-URI/GSO).

quite brief, and intended primarily to test survey identified as a target on the ocean bottom at a
methodology for deep-water procedures. depth of 320 m about 25 km north of Sinop. Its
The shipwrecks serve as excellent traps for sonar signature, a long, slender upright feature
objects that fall from the surface or move with on the sea-bed, transformed itself into a wooden
currents along the sea-bed, as there is modern mast, standing about 11 m above the sea-bed
rubbish—plastic bags and bottles—as well as under the lights of the ROVs (Fig. 7). At deck level
sticks and brush, on each site’s surface. Other the mast disappears into thick, dark sediment
acoustic targets (for example boulders or tree topped with a soft, whitish organic substance
trunks) showed the same pattern of accumulation biologists call ‘marine snow’, the remains of tiny
of debris. Because radiocarbon-dated wood samples organisms which live in the water column.
from other surface deposits in the area include Elements rarely present on shallower shipwreck
relatively recent wood, it is difficult directly to sites are beautifully preserved here. A 5th-century
associate any of the timbers with the ancient vessel at Anse des Laurons near Marseille had
ships from their position on the ancient materials. portions of a hatch and deck preserved (Gassend
Reviewing the images provided no indisputable et al., 1984), and recent excavations at Olbia
evidence of ancient woodworking techniques, but include a mast (Riccardi, 2002), but discovery of
additional documentation is required. Full a mast in place with associated spars and deck
mapping of the sites is scheduled for 2003. structures from the 5th century AD is unique. A
radiocarbon date of 1610 ± 40 (Beta-147532)
calibrated to 410–520 AD was obtained on a
Shipwreck D sample of wood from the robust timber
Unlike the other wreck sites, shipwreck D pro- designated as a rudder support in the stern and
vides us with unprecedented opportunities to identified as fir (Abies sp.). A second wood
document hull construction during a time of fragment was identified as oak (Quercus sp.,
transition already documented elsewhere in the white oak group), but its original location on the
ancient world. The fourth ship, Shipwreck D, was ship is not known.

6 © 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

Figure 6. Shipwreck C from video camera image (Courtesy

Institute for Exploration/Institute for Archaeological
Oceanography-URI/GSO).

A number of long ridges, possibly spars

partially covered with drifted sediment, lie along
the deck, some between two pairs of uprights aft
of the mast. The direction of the mast’s cant
permitted the determination of the bow and stern.
Timbers protrude above the sediment, and
allow a rough tracing of the ship’s shape and
Figure 7. Acoustic image of Shipwreck D, top of mast with
dimensions (Figs 8 and 9). Identifiable timbers cordage (Courtesy Institute for Exploration/Institute for
include an endpost, a starboard rudder support, Archaeological Oceanography-URI/GSO).
18 timber heads, one pin, at least five spars, a
beam, the mast and its bracing timber, two pairs
of stanchions, and a handful of treenails. The after face. Tentatively designated as a rudder
area of the deck outlined by these timbers is support, this timber is firmly fixed to the hull. Its
between 12 and 14 m long and about 4 m wide. position and relative bulk are reminiscent of a
All measurements are approximate and subject to similarly upright timber visible on depictions of
confirmation by further investigation. Roman ships in the Ostia mosaics, the Torlonia
The curved timber aligned with the mast and relief, and on Trajan’s column (Fig. 10).
about 6 m aft of it on the central axis of the ship Timbers that rise above the sediment surface
is designated as the sternpost. Protruding at least and are rectangular in section, with the narrow
0.5 m above the sediment, the timber curves dimension oriented towards the vessel’s centreline,
upwards and inwards, and incorporates one half are designated as top timbers. These uppermost
of a scarf on its outer face. The scarf implies components of frames have a gentle inward curve
another timber once extended the sternpost, but on their inner face, and a slightly shaped or eroded
no timbers visible in the area correspond to its area near the sediment level on the outer face. A
dimensions. Moving from the endpost to the hole approximately 25 mm in diameter passes
starboard sheerline, we next encounter a through forward and aft faces of the timber heads;
substantial upright timber with a notch on its the holes are aligned with those in adjacent top

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 7

10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

Figure 8. Plan of Shipwreck D with labelled elements, including details (C. Ward).
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 33.1

8
 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

Figure 9. Sheer view of Shipwreck D with labelled elements (C. Ward).

timbers. At least one of these holes was filled

with a wooden pin (Fig. 11), probably for securing
rigging lines. Lost pins, or perhaps cordage
strung between frame heads to enclose the deck,
may once have filled the other holes.
A group of six close-set top timbers includes
one that seems to be out of alignment (F-K on
Fig. 9), perhaps because the heavy spar just
inboard of it may have fallen on it and broken it.
There are 12, possibly 13, timber heads on the
starboard side. Only five timber heads are visible
on the port side, but two of these have unique
features. Top timber R incorporates a c.20 cm
pin, and S has a notch cut into its outer face.
In the region of midships, a tantalising glimpse
of a single transverse beam connected to top
timber S hints at the nature of the vessel’s
interior. Beams at deck level function in several
ways. In addition to providing transverse support
Figure 10. Ship with rudder support and stanchions from to the ship, beams may serve for the attachment
Trajan’s column, 113 AD (Photo courtesy Romisch-
Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz).
of deck planking. Because the sole deck beam
visible in the 2000 expedition photographs is
directly forward of the mast, it is also possible

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 9

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 33.1

that this beam functioned as a mast partner.

Both the beam end and the top timber beside it
have a notch cut into the surface originally
adjacent to the inner planking surface (Fig. 12a).
At this stage in the investigations, existence of a
planked deck is uncertain. This is a small ship —
only 12 to 14 m long—and it is possible that, as
on many other ancient ships, decking was present
only at the bow and stern, leaving the interior
open for easy access to the hold.
The mast is completely preserved, without a
trace of erosion or damage. A small cavity at its
tip suggests a masthead was once attached there,
probably to facilitate attaching the yard. The
mast cants or perhaps has slipped towards one
Figure 11. Pin in top timber, Shipwreck D (Courtesy
Institute for Exploration/Institute for Archaeological
end of the vessel (Fig. 12a), here provisionally
Oceanography-URI/GSO). designated as the forward end. The mast appears

Figure 12. Shipwreck D hull components. a) Detail of bracing timber at mast; b) Beam and top timber; c) Tenon on the
forward end of spar 6 (right) with timber heads F-K (left); d) Stanchions aft of the mast (Courtesy Institute for Exploration/
Institute for Archaeological Oceanography-URI/GSO).

10 © 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

to be fitted tightly to a short, upright timber, Disappointingly for ship scholars and his-
possibly a brace fixed in the bottom of the hull. torians of technology, there are few indications of
Two large treenail heads are visible on the sides how the planks of this ship were held together,
of the bracing timber, suggesting that they were and not even a shadow of a stain of metal
driven through the timber perpendicular to the corrosion products which might provide a clue to
mast. The bracing timber has a stepped cut, how hull components were interlinked. There are
probably to facilitate lashing the mast to it. no mortise-and-tenon fastenings, no sewing, and
On the starboard side of the mast is a spar no metal nails visible in the images from the 2000
running two-thirds of the length of the ship. A bit expedition. Treenails about 3 cm in diameter
further aft is the butt end of another spar, about protrude about 25 mm beyond the outboard face
twice the diameter of the first, with a semi- of some frame ends, and suggest the presence of
circular tenon that has a 20 cm hole drilled a sheer strake about that thick. Treenails also are
through it (Fig. 12c). It is likely to be a yard. visible on the starboard and port sides of the
Several other spars appear to lie aft of the mast, bracing timber.
between the stanchions, and run out on either Examination of the site did not clarify a
side of the sternpost. number of unresolved issues: although there is no
Two pairs of stanchions stand aft of the mast, visible wood erosion or damage from the teredo
about 1.2 m above the sediment level (Fig. 12d). mollusc, a number of hull components are
The stanchions probably were connected with ‘missing’. Particularly noticeable is the lack of a
cross-pieces near deck level, one of which is top rail or sheer strake although 18 timber
present at stanchion 2b. The aft pair is topped by heads stand proud of the sea-bed. Although the
square tenons, presumably fashioned to fit into ship seems to be sitting evenly beneath the
mortises on a now-missing cross-piece. A notch sediment, this is only about a third of the number
facing inboard on each of the forward pair may expected from the distribution pattern in Figs 8
have served to secure rigging lines; the upper and 9.
ends of these stanchions seem to be purposefully Other than the ship itself, the only artefacts we
rounded. There are a few illustrations of similar recorded on Shipwreck D were a modern blue
structures on Roman ships, including a ship on plastic bottle and a small ancient jug, whose neck
Trajan’s column (Fig. 10) and on 2nd- and and handles are visible below the outboard end
4th-century hulls in Tunisian mosaics (Fig. 13) of the beam (Fig. 14). Sediment movement and
(Basch, 1987: figs. 1105, 1109, 1110). The arrange- angle of approach limited our view of the jug,
ment seems to have supported yards and spars and thus any interpretations of its significance,
both while the sail was in use and when it was but it is of primary interest as a potential
lowered, and to provide a place for tying off chronological and cultural marker for future
lines. expeditions.

Figure 13. Mid-3rd-century AD ship with two pairs of stan- Figure 14. Two-handled ceramic jug beneath beam on Ship-
chions in a mosaic from the Maison de la Procession at El wreck D (Courtesy Institute for Exploration/Institute for
Djem, Tunisia (after Revue Archéologique 1974, 48: 23). Archaeological Oceanography-URI/GSO).

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 11

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 33.1

were built completely frame first (Kahanov, 2000)

Conclusions although at least one other vessel at Tantura was
Shipwreck D may be one of the earliest lateen- built with closely-set mortise-and-tenon fastenings
rigged ships to be studied by archaeologists. The during the 7th century (Kahanov and Royal,
angle of the mast and the lack of fittings on it 2001). Factors such as difficulty in obtaining the
suggest that a lateen sail is the most likely skilled labour necessary for plank-oriented
configuration for this small vessel. Lateen sails construction and economic constraints that
spread into Egypt from the western Indian Ocean favoured the construction of smaller hulls
during the first century, and reached the probably influenced the change in construction
Mediterranean and Aegean soon after. We know methods. Van Doorninck (1976: 130) points out
little about sailing on the Black Sea before the that timber is more efficiently used, and iron nails
medieval period, although an early Byzantine and bolts only partially driven into the frames do
sarcophagus identified by the Black Sea Trade most of the work of fastening the late 4th-century
Project land survey illustrates a much larger AD Yassiada hull.
square-sailed vessel typical of late Roman types. Learning more about how the Black Sea wrecks
A brief underwater survey in 1997 located a ship were built would help us compare regional economic
loaded with 6th-century amphoras, but nothing effects and technological change between the
is known about its construction or rigging Black Sea and the Aegean. It is possible that we
(Kassab Tezgör et al., 1998). By the medieval might learn there are as many differences here as
period, lateen sails were common. exist between the eastern and western Mediterranean
Radiocarbon dates and the shape of shipping (where a strong tradition of sewn ships is dem-
jars suggest that all four of the shipwrecks date onstrated by archaeological finds).
to the end of the Roman period and the The Institute for Exploration Black Sea
beginning of the Byzantine period in the Black expeditions relied on remote sensing with side-
Sea. In the Aegean and Mediterranean, people scan sonar in shallow and deep water to identify
built ships in the traditional plank-oriented potential archaeological sites to be examined by
manner, although we see signs of change in the ROVs equipped with obstacle-avoidance sonar
4th century. For millennia, most shipwrights and cameras for identification and analysis. High
created the planking shell first, then inserted quality images support archaeological evaluation
frames and fastened them to the sides (Steffy, of sites and permit decision-making about future
1994). investigations. The hypothesis that the anoxic
Beginning in the 4th century, fastenings waters of the Black Sea would allow extra-
between plank edges became smaller and less ordinary organic preservation is borne out by
securely fitted, and some frames were set up the discovery of a shipwreck 1,500 years old with
before the side planking in order to help control excellent preservation of features above the
hull shape (van Doorninck, 1976). Ship timbers sediment layer. A planned expedition for 2003
from Tantura Lagoon on Israel’s Mediterranean will use a larger, tool-equipped ROV for subsurface
coast show that by the 6th century some hulls testing of Shipwreck D and other sites.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the Turkish Ministry of Culture and the Turkish General Directorate for Monuments and Museums for
permission to conduct this survey, and in particular, to express our gratitude to Dr. Alpay Paßinli and Dr. Harun Özdaß of
the Ministry of Culture, and Fuat Dereli and other researchers from the Sinop Museum. This expedition was envisioned and
organised by Chief Scientist Robert D. Ballard of the Institute for Exploration and Institute for Archaeological Oceanography,
and achieved through the generous support of the Office of Naval Research, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the National Geographic Society and their Expedition Council, the J. M. Kaplan Fund, and the Institute of
Nautical Archaeology.
The work of chief archaeologist Fredrik Hiebert and his team in the region since 1994 laid the groundwork for the success
of these explorations, and we are grateful for his participation in and dedication to the project. We also thank the research
and technical teams from the Institute for Exploration, Marine Sonic, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, and in
particular, Dwight Coleman of the University of Rhode Island, David Mindell of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
chief of operations Catherine Offinger, and chief engineer James Newman. Erkut Arcak, Ayße Atauz, Brendan Foley,
Katherine Croff, Candace Major, Jennifer Smith, Kathryn Willis, and Francesco Torre also contributed to the success of the
1999 and 2000 seasons, and have our sincere appreciation. Cheryl Ward, who joined this project at the invitation of George
F. Bass of INA, thanks him for his continuing support.

12 © 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society

 10959270, 2004, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2004.00002.x by T.C. Cumhurbaskanligi Kulliyesi, Wiley Online Library on [23/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
C. WARD & R. D. BALLARD: DEEP-WATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE BLACK SEA

References
Aksu, A. E., Hiscott, R. N., Mudie, P. J., Rochon, A., Kaminski, M. A., Abrajano, T., and Yaßar, D., 2002, Persistent
Holocene outflow from the Black Sea to the eastern Mediterranean contradicts Noah’s flood hypothesis, GSA Today 12.5:
4–10.
Ballard, R. D., Coleman, D. F., and Rosenberg, G., 2000, Further evidence of abrupt Holocene drowning of the Black Sea
shelf, Marine Geology 170: 254 – 61.
Ballard, R. D., Hiebert, F. T., Coleman, D. F., Ward, C., Smith, J. S., Willis, K., Foley, B., Croff, K., Major, C., and Torres,
F., 2001, Deepwater archaeology of the Black Sea: The 2000 season at Sinop, Turkey, American Journal of Archaeology 105:
607–23.
Basch, L., 1987, Le musée imaginaire de la marine antique. Athens.
Bascom, W., 1976, Deep Water, Ancient Ships. Garden City and New York.
Codispoti, L. A., Friederich, G. E., Murray, J. W., and Sakamoto, C. E., 1991, Chemical variability in the Black Sea:
Implications of continuous vertical profiles that penetrated the oxic/anoxic interface, Deep Sea Research 38: S691–S710.
Coleman, D. F., 2002, Underwater archaeology in Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Lake Huron—Preliminary results
from a shipwreck mapping survey, Marine Technology Society Journal 36.3: 33–44.
Coleman, D. F., Newman, J. B., and Ballard, R. D., 2000, Design and implementation of advanced underwater imaging
systems for deep sea marine archaeological surveys, in IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society (ed.), Oceans 2000 MTS/IEEE
Conference and Exhibition, I, 661– 665. Piscataway.
Gassend, J. M., Liou, B., and Ximémès, S., 1984, L’épave 2 de l’Anse des Laurons (Martigues, Bouches-du-Rhône), Archae-
onautica 4: 75 –106.
Görür, N., Çagatay, N., Emre, Ö., Alpar, B., Sakınç, M., Islamoglu, Y., Algan, O., Erkal, T., Keçer, M., Akkök, R., and
Karlık, G., 2001, Is the abrupt drowning of the Black Sea Shelf at 7150 yr BP a myth?, Marine Geology 176: 65–73.
Hiebert, F., 2001, Black Sea coastal cultures: trade and interaction, Expedition 43: 11–20.
Hiebert, F., Smart, D., Gantos, A., and Doonan, O., 1997, From mountaintop to ocean bottom: a comprehensive approach
to archaeological survey along the Turkish Black Sea coast, in J. Tanacredi and J. Loret (eds.), Ocean Pulse: A Critical
Diagnosis, 93 –108. New York.
Kassab Tezgör, D. and Tatlican, I., 1998, Fouilles des atelier d’amphores à Demirci près de Sinope en 1996 et 1997, Anatolia
Antiqua 6: 423 – 42.
Kassab Tezgör, D., Tatlican, I., and Özdaß, H., 1998, Prospection sous-marine près de la côte sinopéenne: transport
d’amphores depuis l’atelier et navigation en mer Noire, Anatolia Antiqua 6: 443–9.
Kahanov, Y., 2000, The Tantura B shipwreck. Tantura Lagoon, Israel: Preliminary hull construction report, in J. Litwin (ed.),
Down the River to the Sea. Eighth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Gdansk, 1997, 151–4. Gdansk.
Kahanov, Y. and Royal, J., 2001, Analysis of hull remains of the Dor D Vessel, Tantura Lagoon, Israel, IJNA 30: 257–65.
Mindell, D., Foley, B., and Webster, S., 1998, Black Sea survey: Cruise report. Manuscript on file at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and the Institute for Exploration, Mystic, Conn.
Murray, J. W., Jannasch, H. W., Honjo, S., Anderson, R. F., Reeburgh, W. S., Top, Z., Friederich, G. E., Codispoti, L. A.,
and Izdar, E., 1989, Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea, Nature 338: 411–13.
Oguz, T., Latun, V. S., Latif, M. A., Vladimirov, V. L., Sur, H. I., Markov, A. A., Ozsoy, E., Kotovshichkov, B. B., Eremeev,
V. N., and Unluata, U., 1993, Circulation in the surface and intermediate layers of the Black Sea, Deep Sea Research 1.40:
1597– 612.
Riccardi, E., 2002, A ship’s mast discovered during excavation of the Roman port at Olbia, Sardinia, IJNA, 31: 268–9.
Ryan, W. B. F., Pitman, W. C. III, Major, C. O., Shimkus, K., Moskalenko, V., Jones, G. A., Dimitrov, P., Görür, N., Sakinç,
M., and Yuce, H., 1997, An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf, Marine Geology 138: 119–26.
Steffy, J. R., 1994, Wooden Shipbuilding and the Interpretation of Shipwrecks. College Station, Texas.
Uchupi, E. and Ross, D. A., 2000, Early Holocene marine flooding of the Black Sea, Quaternary Research 54: 68–71.
van Doorninck, F. H. Jr., 1976, The fourth-century wreck at Yassi Ada. A preliminary report on the hull, IJNA 5: 115–61.
van Doorninck, F. H. Jr., 2002, Byzantine shipwrecks, in A. Laiou (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh
through the Fifteenth Century I, 899 –905. Dumbarton Oaks Studies 39, Washington, DC.
Ward, C., 2000, Black Sea Trade Project, 1999, INA Quarterly 26.3: 4–6.

© 2004 The Nautical Archaeology Society 13